CARBON CYCLE
This, is concerned with the way that the atmospheric carbondioxide is utilized by plants and animals and returned to the atmosphere without depleting its volume.
IMPORTANCE OF CARBON CYCLE
- Purification of atmospheric carbon (iv) oxide
- Improves the soil fertility.
- Plant uses carbon (iv) oxide to manufacture their food
LOSS OF CARBON:
(1) Leaching (2) Drainage (3) Photosynthesis (4) Crop removal.
C. WATER CYCLE
This is the continuous circulation of water between the atmosphere and earth.
IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO PLANTS:
(1) Helps in the absorption of mineral salts (2) Essential for plant growth (3) Helps to maintain plant turgidity (4) Helps in the transportation of nutrients to other parts of the plant (5) Helps in cooling of the soil
D. SULPHUR CYCLE
IMPORTANCE OF SULPHUR TO PLANTS:
(1) Member of many plant protein e.g cystine and methionine (2) Also found in plant hormones like Biotin and Theamine (3) Essential for chlorophyll formation:
9.0 EFFECTS OF SOME FARMING PRACTICES ON THE SOIL
9.1 BUSH BURNING: This is setting the bush on fire to destroy the vegetation. Advantages (1) Certain minerals like potassium and phosphorus are released (2) pH of the soil is raised (3) It destroys the seeds of weed (4). The ash released can supply certain minerals and control acidity in the farms (5) It has some sterilizing effects on the soil (6) Destroys soil-borne pathogens or germs. Disadvantages (1) Causes loss of soil organic matter (2) Exposes soil to erosion and leaching (3) Soil structure may be destroyed (4) Leads to loss of soil moisture (5) Volatile soil nutrients are lost e.g nitrogen, sulphur (6) The smoke released causes environmental pollution.
9.2 OVER-GRAZING/GRAZING This is when more animals feed on available pasture. Advantages: (1) Animals fertilise the soil with their dungs (2) Its movement on vegetation control weeds (3) It helps to clear the land for next cropping. Disadvantages: (1) Erosion is rampant (2) The hooves of farm animals cause soil compaction (3) Destroys soil structure (4) Destroy the crops on the farmland (5) Leads to poor growth of plants.
9.3 LAND/CLEAN CLEARING
This is where all vegetations are cleared. Advantages: (1) Destroys all weeds (2) It is easy to carry out tillage practises. Disadvantages: (1) Increases soil temperature (2) Destroys soil structure (3) Exposes the soil to erosion (4) Increases leaching effect (5) Reduction of organic matter (6) It leads
SECTION C: –
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 11.0 SIMPLE FARM TOOLS & IMPLEMENTS These are tools used by the farmers to carry out farm operations, e.g.
- Cutlass (1) Clearing of bush (2) Digging holes (3) For weeding (4) For harvesting some crops (5)
- Spade (1) Lifting the soil from one place to another (2) Turning of the soil Ts hivico (3) Digging holes (4) Transplanting seedlings (5) Levelling loose soils.
- Hoe (1) Making of heaps (2) Preparing ridges (3) Turning of the soil (4) Transplanting of seedlings (5) Uprooting stumps.
- Garden-fork (1) Turning manure during compost preparation (2) Loosening of the soil surface (3) For spreading manure.
- Hand Trowel (1) Transplanting of seedling (2) Spreading manure or mixing fertilizer with soil (3) Digging holes on beds.
- Axe (1) For felling trees (2) Cutting logs (3) Uprooting stumps (4) Splitting firewood at home.
- Rake (1) Levelling the soil surface (2) Removing weeds from seedbed (3) Removing stones from seedbed (4) For covering vegetable seeds when broadcast.
- Hand fork (1) Loosening soil surface (2) For Transplanting (3) For weeding.
- Watering can (1) For irrigating flowers (2) For sprinkling foliar fertilizers (3) For spraying chemicals (4) For supplying water to young seedlings.
- Shears (1) Trimming hedges (2) Cutting flowers to shape (3) Cutting long grasses (4) Removing dead – parts or excessive branches.
- Secateurs (1) For pruning bushes (2) For taking hardwood cuttings (3) Cutting of side branches of shrubs.
- Sickle (1) For harvesting cereals like maize, rice etc. (2) For harvesting oil palm fruits (3) For cutting forages for livestock.
- Mattock (1) Digging of the soil (2) Uprooting small stumps (3) Excavation of the soil during construction.
- Mallet (1) Pushing off logs from the farm (2) Splitting logs.
- Headpan (1) Collection of harvested crops (2) Mixing of fertilizers (3) Transporting soil in the farm (4) Transporting compost in the farm (5) Packing weeds and stones out of the farm.
- Shovel (1) For light weeding (2) For harvesting and planting (3) For transferring soil from one place to another.
- Tapping knife (1) Tapping of the latex out of rubber knife trees
- Dibber (1) Planting of maize seeds locally (2) Harvesting root crops (3) Digging the soil during staking of yam.
- Wheel (1) For transporting harvested crops Barrow (2) For carrying manure from one place to another (3) For carrying tools in the farm.
- Pliers (1) For bending and cutting wires (2) For gripping or holding small objects (3) For pulling out nails from wood.
- Spanner (1) For tightening and loosening of nuts and bolts (2) For changing tyres in the wheel barrow and machines.
- Screw driver (1) Turning of screws (2) Tightening of Driver screws into wood or metals in the farm.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF AGRICULTURAL TOOLS
- Sharpen tools having metal blades (2) It should be washed and cleaned (3) Application of oil to prevent rusting (4) Tighten all bolts or nuts in the tool (5) It should be to soil compaction by heavy machinery.
9.4 FERTILIZER APPLICATION
This is the addition of chemical substances to the soil to improve soil fertility. Advantages (1) Supplement nutrients in the soil (2) Increases population of soil microbes (3) Aids the grc’ath of plants. Disadvantages (1) Expensive to buy (2) Excess causes acidity in the soil (3) Mixing and préparation can lead to pollution (4) Encourages weed growth (5) It can burn the hand and plants when it makes contact.
9.5 ORGANIC MANURING
This is the addition of organic nutrients to the soil to improve the fertility.
Advantages: (1) The texture and structure of soil are improved (2) Cheaper than fertilizer (3) Regulates soil temperature (4) Improves water conservation of the soil (5) Erosion can be prevented. Disadvantages: (1) Introduces pathogens to the soil (2) Rotten smell causes pollution (3) Encourages the development of weeds.
9.6 CROP ROTATION This is where different crops are planted in definite order so as to improve the fertility of the soil. Advantages: (1) Increases crop yield (2) Legumes fix nitrogen to the soil (3) Controls erosion (4) Weed, pest and disease are easily controlled. Disadvantages: (1) If not properly planned, it affects the crop yield.
9.7 PLOUGHING This is the act of breaking the soil into clods with the use of either disc or mould board plough. Advantages: (1) Increases soil organic matter content Sweeds (3) Helps in mixing the soil together (4) Increases water content and infiltration capacity (5) Improves aeration, Disadvantages: (1) Disease pathogens can be spread (2) Destroys soil structure (3) It leads to soil compaction (4) Exposes the soil to harsh environment.
9.8 HARROWING This is the act of breaking the soil into fine tilth. Advantages: (1) Increases root penetration (2) Hard stones and roots of plants are removed (3) Improves water infiltration (4) Improves aeration. Disadvantages: (1) Soil structure can be destroyed (2) Soil erosion may occur.
9.9 RIDGING This is the act of making ridges for root crops like yam, cassava, potatoes etc.
Advantages: (1) Enhances water conservation (2) Improves water infiltration capacity (3) Improves aeration (4) Erosion is controlled. Disadvantage: (1) Handpan can arise leading to waterlogging.
10.0 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
10.1 IRRIGATION: Irrigation is defined as the artificial application of water to the soil to supplement insufficient rainfall for crop production.
IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION: (1) For easy tillage of soil (2) Increases yield of crops (3) ‘For early planting or crops (4) Reduces salination in the soil (5) Protects plans against dormancy (6) Facilitates the survival of crops during droughts
PROBLEMS/DISADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION (1) High cost of equipment (2) Inadequate water supply (3) Build up and spread of pests (4) Causes environmental pollution (5) Aids weed disposal (6) Maintenance cost is high (7) Vectors of diseases like snails, tsetse flies can breed freely.
SOURCES OF IRRIGATION WATER: (1) Rivers (2) Lakes (3) Streams (4) Ponds (5) Dams (6) Boreholes (7) Wells (8) Reservoirs (9) Springs.
TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM (a) Surface Irrigation: This is the system by which water is made to flow on the surface of the farmland by means of furrow, channels and flooding. Advantages: (1) Cheap to practice (2) Even spread of water on the farmland (3) Economical use of water. Disadvantages: (1) No water control (2) The flow of water is determined by slope of the land (3) Some crops are not flood friendly. (b) Sub-Surface Irrigation: This is the system by which – water is applied below the soil surface through the use of perforated pipes which carry the water to the roots of crops by capillary action. Advantages: (1) Reduction in the evaporation rate of water (2) Water is supplied to the plant roof directly (3) Ideal in soil with high infiltration rate and low water retention. Disadvantages: (1) it is expensive (2) Require expertise.
(c) Overhead Irrigation: This is a system by which water is supplied to the crops above the soil surface by the use of sprinklers, watering can and drips. Advantages: (1) Cheap source of water usage (2) Ideal in the nursery (3) Ideal in the arid and semiarid areas (4) Good for all crops (5) Chemical and liquid fertilizer can be applied. Disadvantages: (1) Expensive to establish (2) High cost of maintenance and repair (3) Require high pressure before it can supply water.
10.2 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS Drainage is the removal of excess water artificially for a farmland to prevent waterlogging and promote good farm activities
IMPORTANCE OF DRAINAGE (1) Prevents waterlogging in the soil (2) Helps in early planting and ploughing (3) Helps is soil aeration (4) Improves soil temperature (5) Prevents toxicity of plant (6) Increases rate of germination (7) Favours development of soil microbes
PROBLEMS/DISADVANTAGES OF DRAINAGE: (1) Lack of expertise (2) Lack of proper maintenance (3) Disallow the use of farm machines (4) The reservoir can act as breeding ground for pests and diseases (5) The size of farmland is reduced.
TYPES OF DRAINAGE: There are two major types: (A) Surface Drainage: This is the removal of excess water from the surface of the farmland using constructed open ditches, field drains, land grading and lateral ditches. Advantages: (1) Easy to construct (2) It is cheap. Disadvantages: (1) Affects the movement of farm machines (2) It can act as the breeding place for some pests (3) Occupies large area of land that would have been used for farming (B). Sub-Surface/Underground Drainage: This is an orderly removal of excess water from the land artificially using different materials like pipes, tiles, moles and plastic tubing. They include random system, herring bone system, good iron system and interception drains.
Advantages: (1) It allows free movement of farm machine (2) High value crops are grown (3) The soil is hard and so drainage pipes cannot be damaged (4) It leaves the field free from surface obstruction Disadvantages: (1) Costly to construct (2) Difficult to maintain (3) It requires expertise. saved in a cool, dry place (6) Replace worn-out parts.
11.1 FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS These are powered tools used to carry farm operations, and they include: tractors, planters, ridgers, shellers, loughs, harrows, harvesters, cultivators, trucks, dryers, sprayers, incubators, etc.
TRACTOR It is a powerful multipurpose machine used in the farm. It has internal combustion engine, uses diesel as fuel. Power is transmitted through the power take off (P.T.O.), shaft or by means of a moving belt connecting the tractor to another machine. It can be in form of general purpose, two-wheeled, track laying etc.
USES OF TRACTOR
- Used to pull farm implements like plough, harrow etc (2) For transporting farm inputs and farm produce (3) For transporting harvested crops (4) To transport farm workers.
BULLDOZER: This is a type of tractor that has a broad steel blade in front to raise vegetation and other obstacles and moves on track wheels. It is used for bush clearing, felling of trees, stumping, levelling the ground and road construction.
SHELLER: This is a processing machine operated electrically. Uses: (1) Separates grains from the cob in maize (2) Removes hard outer covering of nuts as in groundnuts (3) Shell grains of between 10-13% moisture content.
INCUBATOR: This is also electrically operated machine for hatching eggs. The components include candler, turner, trolley or trays for setting eggs, thermostat, setter, hygrometer, alarms, forced draft air circulation and heater
5 DRYER: This is an electrically operated machine us in the drying of agricultural products. It is used to dry vegetables hay meat, curing and tanning of leather and tobacco Fruits can also be dried, and farm produce like cocoa, beans and maize in which the moisture contents are reduced.
MILKING MACHINE: This is an equipment used for milking or extracting fresh milk from the udder of dairy animals like cow, nanny etc. The important parts are electric motor, vacuum pump, vacuum controller, garage, tap, teat cup, milk tank, and source of power.
11.2 TRACTOR-COUPLED IMPLEMENTS These are implements like plough, harrow, ridger, planter etc. attached to the tractor. They use power generated from the tractor in order to carry out operations required of them.
(A) PLOUGH: This is a primary tillage or soil cultivation implement used in land preparation. There are two types: (i) Mould board plough (ii) Disc plough.
(B) HARROW: This is a secondary tillage implement. It is used to break soil clods after ploughing or to cultivate light soils and drag roots and stones out of the ground. The different types of harrow are disc harrow, spring tine, cultivators and spike – tooth harrow.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A DISC PLOUGH & DISC HARROW DISC PLOUGH DISC HARROW
- The discs are very large in size. The Discs are small in size
- The space between each disc is very wide. The space between each disc is very narrow.
- There is a single gang. One or two pairs of gang.
- Expensive to buy. Cheaper than plough.
- It is a primary soil tillage implement It is a secondary soil tillage implement
- Large soil clods are produced. Small or fine tilth is produced.
(C) RIDGER: This is secondary soil tillage implement used after harrowing to prepare ridges for planting. Examples are disc ridger and mouldboard ridger.
(D) PLANTER: They are used for planting on the field. Examples are broadcasting planter, drilling planter and precision planter.
(E) HARVESTER: This is an implement designed to harvest mature and ripe crops. Examples are mower, forage harvester, corn picker and combine harvester.
(F) SPRAYER: This is a machine designed for the spraying of agro-chemicals in the farm against insects, parasites and weed. There are different types; knapsack (pneumatic) sprayer, helicopter mounted sprayer, tractor mounted sprayer, boom and nozzle sprayer.
CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENT (1) Ensure that nuts, screws or sheet metal parts are tight 2) Keep them in cool and dry places (3) Machines should be cleaned before storage (4) Check water and oil levels regularly (5) Grease metal parts or joints to prevent excessive friction (6) Keep the machine free from grease and thrash at the start or end of the operation to make the machine clean (7) Blunt edges should be sharpened (8) Check tyre pressure and replace flat or worn-out tyres (9) Adhere strictly to manufacturer’s instruction (10) Carry out routine services by changing filter and oil when due.
12.0 MECHANIZATION Mechanization is the use of modern implements as well as motorised equipment in carrying out farm operations to increase agricultural production and efficiency.
ADVANTAGES OF MECHANIZATION
- It increases yield and productivity (2) There is reduction in drudgery (3) Specialization can be achieved (4) It reduces cost of production (5) Large area of farmland can be worked within a short time (6) It helps in reclamation of vastelands (7) It provides a higher standard of living for farmers (8) It increases farm revenue (9) There is increase in farm efficiency (10) Facilitates processing and preservation of farm produce.
DISADVANTAGES OF WASTE LAND (1) High cost of maintenance (2) Causes environmental pollution (3) Destroys soil structure (4) Leads to soil compaction (5) Erosion can occur (6) Displaces worker Expensive to practise (8) Seasonality of operation is impossible.
PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN NIGERIA
(1) Illiteracy of the farmers (2) Land tenure problem (3) Unavailability of spare parts (4) Poor soil condition (5) The nature and position of the land (6) Poverty level of the farmers (7) Inadequate manpower to service the machines (8) No machine has been invented locally.
LIMITATIONS OF FARM MECHANIZATION (1) Farmers are generally poor, and cannot afford it. (2) Lack of technical know-how of machines (3) Small farmland is uneconomical for mechanization (4) Agricultural practice is seasonal in Nigeria, machines can only work in the dry season.
SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OF MECHANIZATION (1) Providing good, qualitative education to farmers on modern systems of mechanization (2) The system of land acquisition should be reviewed (3) Local machines should be developed to suit the soil and crop natures (4) Farmer cooperative societies should purchase machines for their members (5) Banks must provide capital for the procurement of machines (6) Government must provide subsidies to farmers (7) Agro service centres should be established to provide hiring unit at subsidized rate.
13.0 FARM POWER Farm power refers to the various sources of power used in doing farm activities.
13.1 SOURCES OF FARM POWER Farm power can be obtained from the following sources: (1) Human power (2) Sun power (3) Animal power (4) Wind power (5) Mechanical power (6) Water power (7) Electrical power (3) Biogas power.
13.2 HUMAN POWER: This is the type of power got from human beings.
Advantages:
(1) Easily available (2) Easily controlled (3) Brings about least damage (4) Needed in the coordination of other sources of farm power (5) It may be skilled or unskilled.
Disadvantages
(1) Easily fatigued (2) May be expensive if trained (3) Poor state of diet and health will affect his attitude to work. (4) Decreases with time.
13.3 SOLAR/SUN POWER: This is energy from the sun.
Advantages
(1) Cheap source (2) It is neat (3) For drying farm produce (4) Used in heating farmstead (5) Essential for photosynthesis.
Disadvantages
(1) Can be erratic (2) Cannot be harnessed effectively (3) Difficult and expensive to store (4) It is only available during the day.
13.4. ANIMAL POWER: This is power from farm animals like bull, donkey etc.
Advantages
(1) Cheap source of power (2) Not an intelligent source 3) It can be hired (4) Used in carrying people, drawing loughs etc.
Disadvantages
(1) Gets tired easily (2) Can eat up crops (3) May not work under heavy rainfall or hot weather (4) Maintenance cost is high (5) Usually attacked by insect pests.
13.5 WIND POWER: This is the process in which air in motion is converted into windpower.
Advantages
(1) Used in winnowing (2) For drying farm produce (3) Used in windmills (4) For draining water from well.
Disadvantages
(1) Expensive to harness (2) Supply is erratic, subject to weather condition (3) Cannot be stored (4) Difficult to control (5) Efficiency is highly variable.
13.6 MECHANICAL POWER: This is a form of energy generated by machines.
Advantages
(1) Saves time (2) Reduces farm drudgery (3) Cultivates large hectares of land (4) Reduces costs of production (5) Used in traction, grinding, food processing etc.
Disadvantages
(1) Costly to purchase (2) Costly to maintain (3) Destroy soil structure (4) Causes environmental pollution (5) Displaces workers.
13.7 WATER POWER: This is power derived from rivers, streams or dams.
Advantages
(1) Cheap source (2) Used to drive turbines to generate electricity (3) Used to operate steam engines (4) Used in transportation (5) Used to process some farm produce.
Disadvantages
(1) Supply is irregular especially in the desert (2). Expensive to operate (3) Its use can be limited by adverse weather condition.
13.8 ELECTRICAL POWER: This is a form of energy derived from electricity.
Advantages
(1) It is versatile (2) It is usually reliable (3) It is a very neat source (4) Converted into heat energy used for drying produces (5) It is faster and efficient.
Disadvantages
(1) Expensive to buy (2) It is dangerous if carelessly handled (3) Cost of maintenance is high (4) It cannot be stored for use at convenient time.
13.9 BIOGAS POWER: This is power derived from animal dungs.
Advantages
(1) Cheap source of power (2) Easily controlled (3) Used for cooking and drying (4) As a source of heat for brooding chicks.
Disadvantages
(1) Not a common source of power (2) Not easily available (3) Expensive to set up and maintain (4) Requires expertise to set it up.
14.0 SURVEYING AND PLANNING OF FARMSTEAD
14.1 FARM SURVEYING: This is the process of measuring and mapping out the position, height, size and boundary of an area of farmland.
14.2 FARM PLANNING: This is the drawing or outlining of a farmstead and the arrangement of land for proper usage without the risk of land degradation.
14.3 IMPORTANCE OF FARM SURVEYING AND PLANNING (1) It helps to know the size of farmland (2) It can be used for feasibility studies (3) It helps in planning the farmstead (4) It is a source of security over the land (5) It helps to determine the topography/gradient of the farmland (6) The yield of farmland can be projected (7) It helps to prevent wastage of farmland and other inputs (8) It helps the farmer to determine where to site and locate certain buildings or structures in the farm (9) Helps to determine the number of inputs needed within the farm (10) It enables the farmer to make proper use of the land.
14.4 COMMON SURVEYING EQUIPMENT (1) Ranging pole (2) Arrow/pin (3) Gunter’s chain (4) Measuring tape (5) Prismatic compass (6) Offset staff (7) Theodolite (8) Beacon/Pillar (9) Plumb bob (10) Pegs (11) Optical square (12) Field book:
14.5 CONVECTIONAL SIGNS
14.6 MAINTENANCE OF SURVEY EQUIPMENT (1) Grease or oil the metal tip (2) Paint where necessary (3) Straighten bent edges (4) Sharpen blunt edges (5) Clean/wash and dry properly after use (6) Repair and service the necessary equipment (7) Store in a cool dry place.
14.7 MEANING AND FACTORS CONSIDERED IN THE PLANNING AND DESIGNING OF FARMSTEAD Farmstead is the home of farm animals and production centre for plants. It is made of blocks, mud or zinc and may be grouped into dwellings, barns, pen for poultry and pig, shed for cattle, orchard for pineapple, storage facilities, processing shed, farm shop etc. The factors to be considered are: (1) Climate of the area (2) Topography or nature of the land (3) Nature of soil and water supply (4) Accessibility to everybody. (5) Nearness to market (6) Economic factor (7) Direction of wind.
14.8 PRINCIPLES OF FARM LAYOUT In order to lay out the farm properly certain conditions should be considered; these are: (1) Office building should be located far away from the pen, shed and processing units (2) Crop farms to be cultivated on fertile land (3) Avoid erosion prone areas (4) The farm must be accessible.
SECTION D: CROP/PLANT PRODUCTION
15.0 CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS Agricultural crops are arranged into two major an (a) Classification according to life cycle (b) Classification according to uses.
15.1 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO LIFE CYCLE
Life cycle is the period of germination to harvesting and includes: (1) Annual crops e.g. maize, rice, cowpea, millet, etc. (2) Biennial crops e.g. carrot, lettuce, cabbage, ginger, cassava’ etc. (3) Ephemeral crops e.g. tomato, pepper, vegetables etc. (4) Perennial crops e.g. sugarcane, banana, kolanut, cocoa, oilpalm, plantain etc.
15.2 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USES (1) Cereal crops e.g. maize, rice, millet, sorghum, wheat, barley, oats etc. (2) Pulses (Legumes) – Pigeon pea, soyabean, cowpea, groundnut, mucuna, bambara nut etc. (3) Root & tuber crops-carrot, cassava, yam, cocoyam, Irish potato, sweet potato etc. (4) Vegetable crops e.g. tomatoes, amaranthus sp, onion, cauliflower, spinach, lettuce etc. (5) Fruit crops e.g. sweet oranges, grapefruit, banana, cashew, mango etc. (6) Beverage crops e.g cocoa, coffee, tea, kolanut (7) Spices e.g. ginger, pepper, onion, garlic (8) Fibre crops e.g. Cotton, kenaf, sisal hemp, hibiscus, etc. (9) Oil crops e.g. Oilpalm, groundnut, sunflower, melon, coconut, cotton etc. (10) Latex crops e.g rubber (11) Wood crops e.g. Iroko, abura, opepe, mahogany, Gmelina, African walnut etc. (12) Ornamental crops eg. Sunflower, lily, roses etc
HUSBANDRY OF SELECTED CROPS 15.3 CEREALS – MAIZE: Family-Gramineae (Grass family)
- Botanical name: Zea mays
- Land preparation: The land is cleared with cutlass or tilled with hoe or mechanically by ploughing, stumping, harrowing and ridging.
- Varieties: Sweet maize, flint, dent maize, popcorn, floury maize, hybrids, and locals.
- Propagation: By seed only; manually or mechanically planted.
- Climatic requirement: Temperature of about 20°C – 30°C, rainfall between 75cm – 150cm per annum.
- Soil requirement: Well drained sandy loam and silt loam with fine tilth of pH 6-7 7.
- Planting date: Early maize (March and April) in Southern Late maize (July & August Sept.) Nigeria June – In the North 8.
- Seedrate: 25 – 30kg maize seed per hectare at 2-3 seeds per hole. 9.
- Spacing: 90cm x 60cm at 2 seeds per hole 90cm x 30cm at 1 seed per hole
25cm x 70cm in commercial farms
- Cultural practices: These include: (a) Supplying: Filling the ungerminated spaces (b) Thinning: Removal of extra or weak plants e.g thin maize one or two per hole. (c) Fertilizer application: Apply NPK 15:15:15 (200kg or 4 bags per hectare) at planting. 100kg of NPK 15.15:15 at 6-7 weeks after planting OR apply farmyard/poultry dropping by side dressing or by broadcast method. (d) Weeding: Use manual methods e.g. hoe and cutlass or use herbicide to control. (e) Control of pests and diseases: It should be regularly
- Maturity period: 3-4 months or 90 – 120 days after planting.
- Harvesting: By plucking the cobs by hand, use of sickle or combine harvester.
- Processing: Cooked, roasted or made into flour, and cornflakes
- Storage: rhombus, fireplace, silos, cribs or in air tight container.
- Pests: Stem borer, maize weevil, grasshopper.
- Diseases: Maize rust (fungus), leaf blight (fungus), maize streak (virus) maize smut (fungus), leaf spot (fungus)
15.4 CEREAL-RICE
- Botanical name: Oryza sativa family – Gramineae (Grass family)
- Land preparation: The land is cleared, stumped, ploughed or ridges made mechanically or manually.
- Varieties: (a) Swamp rice (b) Upland rice.
- Climatic requirement: Temperature of 20°C – 30°C, rainfall 75cm – 120cm for upland rice and 250cm for swamp rice.
- Soil requirement: Fertile soil with soil pH of 4.0 -8.0.
- Method of propagation: By seeds.
- Seed rate: 65kg rice seeds per hectare at 2-3 seeds per hole.
- Spacing: 25cm x 30cm depending on the variety/by broad casting.
- Planting date: Southern Nigeria: April-May
Northern Nigeria: August – September
- Nursery practises: These are essential for swamp rice and include: (a) Soil requirement: Fertile, water soaked soil
(b) Planting: By broadcasting (c) Germination: 4-5 days after planting (d) Transplanting: 7-8 weeks of growth in the nursery (e) Planting time: May/June. (f) Spacing: 25cm x 30cm apart. (g) Fertilizer application: Apply 150kg (3 bags) of NPK fertilizer per hectare (h) Weeding – regularly by manual or the use of herbicide.
- Maturity period – 4 – 7 months
- Diseases: (i) Rice blast (fungus) (ii) Leaf spot (fungus) (iii) Leaf blight (fungus) (iv) Rice smut (fungus), (v) Stalk/root rot (fungus).
- Pests: Birds, stem borers, armyworms, rodents, weevils etc.
- Harvesting: Use knife or sickle to cut mature heads or the use of combine harvester.
- Processing of rice (a) Sun drying – 3 – 4 days after harvesting (b) Threshing – by manual/thresher to separate stalk from grains (c) Winnowing – removal of dust, chaff and stalk through blowing (d) parboiling – to reduce breakage, increase its vitamins, and husk being removed, boil for 12 – 15 hours. (e) Hulling – removal of the husks from the grains (1) Polishing – the removal of husks and other layers (rice bran) which is very proteinous and rich in vitamins, and this can cause beriberi.
- Storage: Store in silo, jute bags or as paddy rice.
15.5 TUBER-YAM (Dioscorea sp) Family – Dioscoreaceae
- Varieties: (a) White yam (Dioscorea rotundata) (b) Water yam (Dioscorea alata) (c) Yellow yam (Dioscorea cayenensis) (d) Aerial yam (Dioscorea bulbifera) (e) Threc leaf or trifoliate yam – Dioscorea dumentorium (f) Chinese yam – Dioscorea esculenta
- Land preparation: The land is cleared manually mechanically and may be ploughed and harrowed Ridges may be done manually/mechanically.
- Climate Requirement: Temperature of 25°C -30°C, rainfall of 100cm – 180cm per annum, and abundant sunshine
- Soil requirement: Well drained sandy or clayey loam rich in humus.
- Method of propagation: Yam sett, seed yam or whole tuber of about 250gm.
- Seed rate: One seed yam or sett or whole tuber per hole, 3-5 tonnes of seed yam/hectare.
- Planting: The planting material is dusted with aldrin and planted in a slanty form at an angle of 45°
- Spacing: 90cm x 100cm (seedyam), 252m x 100cm (Minisett).
- Germination time: 20 – 60 days.
- Cultural practises: Weed regularly with hoe or the use of herbicide, manure with farmyard manure after planting or fertilizer NPK 20:0:20 of about 200kg/ha 3 months after planting in a ring method; stake with a bamboo stick or maize stem to increase yield. The vine should be trained either in clockwise or anticlockwise. Then mulch with grasses.
- Maturity Period: 8 – 10 months for all yam species except yellow yam (10 – 12 months)
- Harvesting: When the leaves turn yellow, dig holes to bring tuber out.
- Storage: The tubers are tied in barns or store as flour
- Pests: (i) Nematode (ii) Yam tuber beetle (iii) Roder (iv) Yam shoot beetle (v) Grasshopper.
- Diseases: (i) Yam dry rot (Nematode) (i) Leaf spot fun gus) (ill) Yam mosaic (virus) (iv) Witch brown (fungus)
15.6 TUBER-CASSAVA (Manihot Spp) Family – Euphorbiaceae (1) Varieties: (a) sweet cassava (Manihot palmata) (b) Bitter cassava (Manihot utilissima) (2) Land preparation: Land is cleared manually or me chanically. (3) Climate and soil requirement: Temperature of 21°C 35°C, rainfall of 150cm – 200cm with a well-drained rich friable loamy soil. (4) Method of propagation: By stem cuttings which have 4-6 growth buds and planted at angle of 45° (5) Planting date: North (June-August), South (March – September). (6) Spacing: 90cm x 150cm (small cuttings), 1m x 1m (long cuttings). (7) Germination: 7-14 days (8) Cultural practises: (a) Weeding: Use cutlass/hoe or use herbicide (b) Fertilizer application: Apply NPK fertilizer at 250kg/he 4-6 weeks after planting.
(9) Maturity period: 8-15 months depending on the variety. (10) Harvesting: The stem is cut, pulled gently to uproot. (11) Storage: Store in sack as garri or fufu (cassava flour). (12) Diseases: (1) Leaf blight disease (Bacteria) (2) Cassava mosaic disease (virus) (3) Leaf spot (fungus). (13) Pest: (1) Grasshopper (2) Sheep (3) Goat (4) Rodents (5)Green spidermite (6) Mealybug.
15.7 LEGUME – Cowpea Family: Leguminosae (1) Botanical Name Vigna unguiculata (2) Varieties: Erect type, creeping type, Ife brown, lfe bimpe, Mala, Ayi, Kudi, 0101 & 2 etc. (3) Land preparation: The land is cleared manually or mechanically later stumping, harrowing and ridging are done. (4) Climatic and soil requirement: Temperature of 27 0 – 35°C. rainfall of 60cm – 125cm per annum, abundant sunshine with rich sandy loam. (5) Planting date: South (Mid – September), North (July – August). (6) Seedrate: 20 – 25kg/hectare with 3-4 seeds thinned to 2 seeds at 2-3 weeks. (7) Spacing: 90cm x 30cm (8) Germination: 3 – 5 days after planting (9) Cultural practice: (a) Weeding – to be done regularly and manually 2-3 times, before harvesting (b) Fertilizer application – not required except in poor soil. (10) Maturity period: 3 – 4 months (11) Harvesting: When the leaves turn brown, done manually by handpicking. (12) Storage: Store in jute bags. (13) Pests: (1) Pod borers (2) Bean beetles (3) Leaf hoppers. (14) Diseases: (1) Mosaic disease (virus) (2) Bacterial blight (Bacteria) (3) Nematode disease (nematode) (4) Damping off (fungus)
15.8 LEGUME-GROUNDNUT – Family-Leguminosae (1) Botanical name: Arachis hypogea (2) Varieties: Bunch or erect type, creeping type, Kano Local, Kano 50, castle cary.
(3) Climatic & Soil requirement: Temperature of 25 C 30°C, rainfall of 70cm – 100cm per annum with coarse – textured sandy-loam soil of pH 5-7 rich in calcium and phosphorus. (4) Method of propagation: By seed. (5) Planting date: South (March-April). North (late way 72 & July). (6) Land preparation: Clearing of bush manually or mechanically but later stumped, ploughed, harrowed and ridged (7) Spacing: 40cm – 60cm x 20cm. (8) Seed rate: 40kg – 90kg/hectare. (9) Weeding: Regular weeding with hoe. (10) Harvesting: Use either manual or mechanised method at 4-5 months. (11) Storage: Store unshelled in sacks, rhombus or silo or shelled in sacks. (12) Pests: (1) Aphids (2) Rodents eg. rats (3) Caterpillar (4) Grasshopper (5) Bruchid/ weevil/flour beetle. (13) Diseases: (1) Rosette (virus) (2) Tikka disease/cercospora leaf spot (fungus) (3) Mouldy seeds/aspergillosis (fungus) (4) Seedrot (fungus)
15.9 VEGETABLE: TOMATO Family: Solanaceae. (1) Botanical name: Lycopersicon esculentum (2) Varieties: Ife plum, Roma, Valiant, Pork, Marglobe, Bonny best, Ronita and local cultivars e.g Ibadan local. (3) Climatic and soil requirement: Rainfall of 50cm – 125cm, high sunshine, temperature of 20°C -25°C. Night temperature of 10°C -20°c. Any temperature above 29°c disturbs fruiting, and a well-drained loam soil that is slightly acidic. (4) Method of propagation: By seed. (5) Sowing/planting method: Drilling/broadcasting of seeds (6) Planting date: North (September – October), south (March-April). (7) Seedrate: 5-10kg of seeds per hectare at 1 seed/hole (8) Nursery practises: (a) Prepare the tomato seeds with hydrochloric acid (b) Sowing – seeds are maldehyde, and sown in öögu – and washing soda, then dry up. (b) Sowing sterilized with methyl bromide/formaldehyde, and seedbox or trays at 8x8cm apart. (C) Shading – fronds (d)
Weeding – to be carried out manually (e) Irrigation – 7 – 10 days from time of planning (f) Transplanting – This is done when seedling have 4-5 leaves at earl in the morning or evening. (9) Field operation/practises: (a) Land preparation: The land should be cleared, tilled with hoe or mechanically ploughed, harrowed before the beds are made (b) Spacing -60cm x 75cm when staked 60cm x 90cm when unstaked (c) Weeding – to be done regularly with hand, hoe etc. (d) Fertilizer application – Apply NPK 15-15-15 at 50gm/hectare (e) Staking – done when plant flowers, and helps to increase the yield.
- Harvesting: When half ripe at 8 – 15 weeks by hand picking.
- Pests: Caterpillars, crickets, grasshoppers, budworms, whiteflies beetles.
- Diseases: (1) Fusarium wilt (root rot) – fungus (2) Root knot – Nematode (3) Leaf spot – fungus (4) Bacterial wilt – Bacteria
15.10 VEGETABLE – OKRA – Family Malvaceae (1) Botanical name: Abelmoscus esculentus (2) Climatic and soil requirements: Rainfall of 100cm – 150cm, temperature of 18°C – 30°C and a well-drained loamy soil. (3) Varieties: Lady’s finger, perkin’s long pod, local cultivars (4) Land preparation: The land is cleared, stumped, ploughed, harrowed and later ridged. (5) Method of propagation: By seeds. (6) Planting date: Early okra is planted April – May (7) Spacing: 60cm x 60cm. (8) Sowing: Plant 2 – 3 seeds per hole (9) Cultural practises: (a) Thin to one per hole (b) Fill the vacant stand by supplying (c) Apply single phosphate fertilizer at 100kg/ha but organic manure can be used (d) Weed out regularly every time. (10) Maturity period: 3 – 7 months from time of germination (11) Harvesting: Use sharp knife to harvest. (12) Storage: Store in baskets or sacks or may be dried in small bits. (13) Pests: Flea beetle, cricket, grasshopper, red bug.
(14) Diseases: Root knot disease (Nematode), Mosaic (virus), Damping off (fungus), powdery mildew (fungus).
15.11 FIBRE – COTTON Family-Malvaceae (1) Botanical name: Gossypium spp (2) Varieties: Gossypium hirsutum, Gossypium vitifolium local cultivars (Ishan type, samaru local, mekocotton – Gossypium Peruvianum, HAR 444) (3) Land preparation: The land is prepared by clearing the bush, stumping ploughing, harrowing and later ridging. (4) Climatic and soil requirement: Temperature 25°C – 35°c, rainfall 60cm – 120cm. High humidity during growing period, low humidity during boil maturation, and rich sandy loam soil with pH of 5.8-8. (5) Method of propagation – By seed (6) Planting date: North (June/July) South (First week in July) (7) Spacing: 30cm – 45cm x 90cm (8) Cultural practises: Weeding, fertilizer application, mulching. (9) Maturity period: 5 – 8 months. (10) Harvesting: Handpick lint from the boll, and sundried. (11) Processing: The seeds are separated from lint at the ginnery, graded and burled. The seeds crushed to release oil (12) Storage: Place in sack containers and kept in a dry place. (13) Pests: Cotton stainer, bollworm, Cotton jassid bug, Green shield bug, whitefly. (14) Diseases: Damping off (fungus), Leaf curl (virus), Antracnose (Fungus)
15.12 FIBRE – RUBBER Family -Euphorbiaceae. (1) Botanical name: Hevea braziliensis (2) Land preparation: The land is cleared and proper stumping is carried out followed by ploughing and har rowing for early root establishment. (3) Climatic and soil requirement: Temperature 24°C – 32°C, rainfall of 180cm to 300cm, deep loamy or sandy or clayed soil. (4) Varieties: Harbel 1, cough garden, Tjir 1, 5, 10 and 16, PB86, PB 5/51, PR 107 etc. (5) Method of propagation: By seeds, budded seedling, grafted seedlings.
(6) Planting date: Prenursery (August – October), Nursery (9 months later), Field (March – June). (7) Spacing: Prenursey (3cm x 3cm), Nursery (60cm x 60cm), field (4mx6m). (8) Nursery practices: This includes shading, weeding, mulching, disease and pest control, irrigation, pruning, budding, and Transplanting. (9) Field practices: This includes weed control, mulching, watering/irrigation prunning, application of organic manure, and regular control of pests and diseases. (10) Maturity: 3-6 years after planting. (11) Harvesting: A diagonal cut is made 60cm above the ground on the bark of the tree and is done before 10am with the latex collected with a cup. (12) Processing: Latex collected are diluted with water and formic acid to coagulate it before cutting into pieces. washed and put into rolling machine to produce rubber sheets. Talcum powder is added to prevent gumming together and for better storage. (13) Pests: Termites, Caterpillars, Mealybugs, Aphids, Snails, Slugs, Rodents, Bats. (14) Diseases: (1) Pavel diseases – Mouidy rot (fungus), black thread/black stripe disease (fungus). (2) Root diseases – White root (fungus), brown root (fungus), red root (fungus)
15.13 FRUIT – BANANA Family – Musaceae (1) Botanical name: Musa sapientum (2) Varieties: Gros Michel, Musa cavendishi canary banana locatan, red banana, etc. (3) Climatic and soil requirement: Temperature (21°C – 35°c), rainfall (150cm – 200cm per annum) withe well drained rich loamy or clay lcamy soil and a pH of 6. (4) Land preparation: The land must be cleared, then stumped, ploughed, harrowed and ridged. (5) Method of propagation. By sucker (piper, sword of maiden). (6) Planting date: April – September. (7) Spacing: 4.6m x 4.6/4m x 4m/2.4m x 3m depending on the variety. (8) Planting depth: 60cm x 60cm. (9) Cultural practices: These include weeding, prunning, mulching and application of muriate of potash at 360kg/ ha/sulphate of ammonia. (10) Maturity: 6 – 12 months after planting.
(11) Harvesting: Cut the bunch stalk with sharp knife or cutlass. (12) Storage: Store in a refrigerator or processed into juice and store in cans. (13) Diseases: Panama (fungus), leaf spot (sigatoka disease – fungus), bunchy top – (virus). (14) Pests: Bats, Monkeys, Eelworm, Banana borer.
15.14 FRUIT-ORANGE Family – Citrus (1) Varieties: Sweet orange (citrus sinensis), sour orange (citrus aurantium), lime (citrus aurantifolia), lemon (citrus limon), Tangerine (citrus reticulata) Grape fruit (citrus paradisi), shaddock (citrus grandis), Tangelo (citrus paradisi x citrus reticulata), king orange (citrus nobilis). (2) Climatic and soil requirement: Orange require temperature of 25°C – 35°c rainfall of 75 – 125cm and fertile soil. (3) Land preparation: The land is cleared, stumped, ploughed and harrowed by mechanised method. (4) Method of propagation: By seed or vegetative propagation (Budding & crafting). (5) Planting date: Prenursery (October – December). Nursery (April – May). (6) Spacing: Prenursery (3cm x 3cm in seed tray), Nursery (60cm x 90cm), field (6m x 6m/7m x 7m) (7) Nursery practices: (a) Seeds are sown in seed boxes or raised trays, spaced 3cm x 6cm (6) Seedlings are pricked at 3cm – 6cm in height (c) Budding or grafting can be done a year later (d) Prunning, watering, weeding, mulching, pest and disease control should be carried out (c) Transplanting is best done in late May or early June. (8) Cultural practices/post planting maintenance operations: (a) Mulching towards the end of the rains (6) Weeding, watering, prunning and application of fertilizer e.g sulphate of ammonium at 350kg/ha; and control of pests and diseases. (9) Maturity period: 3-7 years. (10) Harvesting: Riped or semi riped fruits harvested with go-to-hell or harvesting knife. (11) Storage: Friut are stored in boxes or as juice in canned tin or bottled. (12) Pests: Purple scale, mealybugs, aphids, mites, fruit moths, thrips, caterpillars, leaf hoppers.
(13) Diseases: Tristeza (virus), Gummosis (fungus), scab (fungus), Anthracnose (fungus), Melanose (fungus).
15.15 OIL CROP-OIL PALM Family – Palmea (1) Botanical name: Elaeis quineensis. (2) Varieties: Dura, Pisifera and Tenera. (3) Land preparation: The bush is cleared manually or mechanically. (4) Climatic and soil requirement: Temperature of 27°C – 35°c, rainfall of 150 – 2000, loamy soil with soil pH of 4.5 -6.5. (5) Method of propagation: 5v seeds (6) Planting date: Prenursery (August – October or in December), Nursery (9 months later). Held – March – May (a year after) (7) Seed rate: 120 – 150 seeds/ha. (8) Germination: Seeds are soaked for 7 days in cold water, but change the water daily. The seeds are then drained and dried under shade for 1 – 2 hours and laten put a in polythene bags in a cool place at room temperature. Seeds are then examined every two weeks for drying and germination. Germinated seeds are picked out for potting. (9) Cultural practices: (a) Pre-nursery: Seed boxes or trays are filled with top soil rich in humus, seeds kept at 400-500 gauge black polythene bags of 40cm wide and 35cm deep with shade, watering and mulching. (b) Nursery: Use a level land with well drained loamy soil, well-watered, fertilized and weeded regularly but no shading is required, and spacing of 60cm x 60cm adopted. (10) Transplanting: This is done after one year stay in the nursery, April – May, and a spacing of 9m x 9m x 9m triangularly in a hole of 4.5cm deep with a wire netting collar at each seedling to prevent pests. (11) Post planting operations: Weeding either with cutlass or use of herbicide, fertilizer application of NPK at 800kg/ ha, cover crops e.g. legumes to prevent erosion, well irrigated, prunning, supplying and mulching during the early rains. (12) Maturity: 3 – 7 years. (13) Harvesting: Mature bunched harvested with cutlass, chisel, harvesting knife or climbing ropes.
(14) Processing: This is of two methods (a) Traditional method (b) Modern method. (a) Traditional method – Harvested palm fruits are boiled and pounded in a mortar. The fibre and oil are separated by floatation, and oil is boiled to remove water. (b) Modern method – This involves the following: (i) Sterilization – This helps to soften the fruits, remove pathogens and inhibits lipolytic enzyme. (ii) Stripping – Re-sterilize the fruits for 30 – 45 minutes (iii) Milling Pounding of sterilize fruits (iv) Pressing – Extraction of oil through the use of screw hand press/hydraulic press/centrifugal press (v) Clarification – Boiling and skimming of oil to remove water from the oil. (15) Storage: Oil refined is stored in drums, tankers, tin or bottles. (16) Pests: Mites, Grasshoppers, Termites, Aphids, Mealybugs, spear borer, Rodents, monkeys, flying bats, weaver bird etc. (17) Disease: Brown Germ (fungus), Anthracnose (fungus), Galadema (Bacterium), Freckle (fungus), Blast/Root Disease of seedling (fungus) Algal spot (Algae).
15.16 BEVERAGE CROP-COCOA Family – Sterculiaceae (1) Botanical name: Theobroma cacao (2) Varieties: Amelonado (Forastero), upper amazon, criollo, trinitario, and hybrids. (3) Land preparation: The bush is cleared, stumped, ploughed and harrowed. (4) Climatic and soil requirement: Temperature of 15°C – 20°c, rainfall 125cm to 200cm per annum with deep fertile well drained loam soil. (5) Method of propagation: By seeds, and vegetative means (budding and leaf cutting). (6) Planting date: December – January (Nursery), April – June (Field Transplanting). (7) Spacing: Nursery (20cm x 20cm), field (2.5 x 2.5m) in Amelonado, 3m x 3m in Amazon. (8) Nursery practices: (a) Sow seeds in polythene bag and spaced 20cm x 20cm (b) Watering, shading, dis eases & pest control, weeding and Transplanting done (9) Field maintenance: Weeding, mulching, shedding prunning replacement of dead seedling and application of fertilizer to be done. (10) Maturity period: 3-5 years after planting in the field (11) Harvesting: Use sharp cutlass or harvesting knife when the fruit changes from green to yellow. Avoid damaging the flower cushion.
(12) Processing: The pods are broken by knocking them against blunt objects e.g. stone or a thick piece of wood. Beans are removed after fermentation using heap or sweat box or tray method. This is done to get the proper taste, colour and flavour, and so that the beans may dry properly when the mucilage is removed. The beans are later dried in the sun or artificially dried. The dry beans are later stored in sacks or, baskets but kept away from maize, tobacco etc. Samples are taken at random for grading. (13) Pests: Mirids/capsid, shieldbug, leafworms, pod-husk miner, termites, mealybugs, spider, mites, and black citrus aphids. (14) Diseases: Black pod (fungus), swollen shoot disease (virus), charcoal rot (fungus).
15.17 SPICE – PEPPER Family – solanceae (1) Botanical name: Capsicum spp (2) Land preparation: The land is cleared and stumped, ridges are made manually or mechanically. (3) Varieties: (i) Sweet pepper (Capsicum annum) – world beater, california wonder, ruby king, long red, neapolitan etc. (ii) Hot pepper/chillies (capsicum frutescens) – Indian purple, Green long pods, local chilli peppers etc. (4) Method of propagation: By seeds (5) Planting date: In the Nursery (February – March) in the field (April – May). (6) Spacing: Nursery (5cm x 5cm) field (60cm x 60cm for hot pepper, 30cm x 45cm for sweet pepper) (7) Cultural practice, (a) These include weeding twice in the dry season and thrice in the wet season, Apply NPK 10:10:20 fertilizer at 4.6 weeks, watered regularly (8) Maturity period: 3 – 4 months after planting (9) Harvesting: Pick the sweet pepper preferably green and the chillies red. (10) Pests: Cutworms, leaf eating insects, birds, lizard and pepper weevils. (11) Diseases: Seedling blight (Bacterium), Downy mildew (fungus), Root rot (fungus) white rot (fungus)
October 18, 2025
