Agricultural Science Keypoints 3

16.0 PASTURE AND FORAGE CROPS Definition: Pasture is a piece of land or field covered with forage crops usually grasses and legumes and used for grazing. Forage crops are grasses and legume crops grown primarily for animal feed production and they include pastures, soiling crops, hay, silage and straw.

16.1 TYPES OF PASTURE (A) Natural Pastures: These are grasses and legumes which grows naturally on their own and are fed upon by farm animals. Characteristics of Natural Pasture: (1) It contains grasses, herbs, shrubs and trees. (2) The grasses and legumes may be of low quality (3) Has good regenerative ability. (4) It is drought resistant (5) It can withstand trampling (6) The growth of new plant is stimulated by burning. (B) Artificial pasture: This is an established or improved pasture that is deliberately planted and managed by man to be grazed by livestock.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTIFICIAL PASTURE: (1) It contains a grass/legume ratio in the desired proportion (2) It contains very high quality of grasses and legumes (3) It has ability to regenerate after grazing (4) It has ability to withstand trampling (5) The legumes help to enrich the soil with soil nitrates.

16.2 COMMON GRASSES OF LIVESTOCK Common Name Botanical Name

1. Elephant Grass Pennisetum Purpureum
2. Guinea Grass Panicum maximum
3. Giant Star Grass Cynodon plectostachyus
4. Bahama Grass Cynodon dactylon
5. Carpet Grass Axonopus Compressus
6. Spear Grass Imperata Cylindrica
7. Gamba Grass (a) Northern gamba grass Andropogon gayanus (b) Southern gamba grass Andropogon tectorum
8. Rhodes Grass Chloris gayana
9. Eragrostic Grass Eragrostic aspera

COMMON LEGUMES OF LIVESTOCK Common Name Botanical Name

1. Centro Centrosema pubescens
2. Stylo Stylosanthes gracilis 3 Puero (tropical kudzu) Pueraria Phaseoloides
3. Calapo Calapogonium mucunoides
4. Mucuna Mucuna utilis
5. Sun hemp Crotalaria Juncea
6. Cowpea Vigna unguiculata

COMMON WEEDS OF LIVESTOCK Common Name Botanical Name

1. Crow foot grass Eleusine Indica
2. Tridax (PWD) weed Tridax procumbens 3 Wild marigold Aspilia africana
3. Water leaf Talinum triangulaire
4. Amaranthus Amaranthus viridis
5. Pigweed Boerhivia diffusa

16.3 IMPORTANCE OF GRASSES & LEGUMES GRASSES (i) They are rich in carbohydrate (ii) They help to prevent soil erosion (iii) They improve the soil structure (iv) They provide bedding material for animal pen (v) They provide animals with more energy.

LEGUMES

(i) They add nutrients (e.g. nitrogen) to the soil (ii) They serve as cover crops (iii) They suppress the weed (iv) They prevent soil erosion (v) They are rich in proteins, vitamins and carbohydrate.

16.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE DISTRIBUTION OF PASTURE (i) Climatic factors like rainfall, temperature, cloud cover, length of humidity etc. (ii) Soil factors include the pH, organisms, soil texture and fertility etc. (iii) Biotic factors are diseases, pests, parasites, predators etc. (iv) Other factors include pollution, topography, farming systems, economic factors etc.

16.5 FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRODUCTIVITY OF PASTURE The ability of the pasture to have efficient production depends on the following (0) Resistance to bad climatic condition like high temperature, length of day light, low rainfall etc. (ii) Resistance to pests and diseases. (iii) Availability of good seeds (iv) Controlled stocking rate of farm animals (v) Resistance to trampling (vi) Proper management like regular weeding, irrigation, fertilizer application etc. (vii) Aggressiveness of pasture to compete with weeds (viii) Resistance to drought and burning (ix) The species of pasture are of high yield, easily propagated and tolerant.

16.6 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ESTABLISHMENT OF PASTURE (i) The Adaptability of species of legumes and grasses to the local environment (ii) Ability of the grasses and legumes to grow continuously (iii) Palatability of grasses and legumes (iv) The legume/grass mixture must be compatible (v) The grasses/legumes to mature within a short time (vi) The ability of grass/legume to regrow, withstand trampling and grazing (vii) Tufted species of pasture to be used where erosion is a problem.

16.7 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SEED PRODUCTION (i) Prolonged head emergence within the species e.g. Guinea grass. (ii) Prolonged flowering within the head can last for 7 weeks or more in some species. (iii) Decrease duration of flowering lead to smaller and fewer seeds (iv) Low seed rate due to prolonged flowering and decrease in the flowering duration (V) Indirect factors like low seed retention, extensive logging and spikelet diseases (vi) Low number of toilers.

16.8 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF PASTURE (i) Adequate stocking of animals (ii) Burning (iii) Fencing (iv) Use of fertilizers (v) Use of suitable forage species (vi) Good shading (vii) Weed control (viii) Pest and disease control (ix) Irrigation (x) Proper management of pasture (xi) Proper rotation of paddocks.

17.0 FOREST MANAGEMENT Definitions (1) Forest – This is defined as a large area of land covered with trees and bushes, either growing wild or planted for some purposes. (ii) Forestry – This is the art of planting, tending and managing forests and the utilization of their products (iii) Silviculture – This is the study of forest trees and other related trees.

17.1 TYPES OF FOREST TREES Obeche, Sapele, Iroko, Mahogany, Nigerian Walnut, Camwood, Opepe, Afara, Black Afara, Teak, Ukpaka com bean), Abura, Ekimwin.

17.2 IMPORTANCE OF FOREST

(1) It provide planks for making furniture, canoes, coffins, pulp for paper making and match stick (2) It is a source of fuel (3) It is a source of foreign exchange (4) It is home for wild animals (5) Provision of food (6) Provision of medicinal herbs (7) Provision of employment (8) It serves as wind break (9) It prevents soil erosion (10) It improves the fertility of soil (11) It purify the air (12) It beautifies the environment (13) Assists water shed management (14) It serves as tourist centres (15) It aid the formation of cloud and rain (16) Encourages nutrient recycling in the soil. (17) It reduces atmospheric pollution (18) Provides materials like ropes, fibres, dyes etc.

17.3 TYPES OF FOREST RESERVE IN NIGERIA (i) Shasha River forest reserve in Ogun State (ii) Omo forest reserve in Ogun State (iii) Sakpoba forest reserve in Edo State (iv) Okomu forest reserve in Edo State (v) Mamu River forest reserve in Anambra State (vi) Afi River forest reserve in Cross River (vii) Oba hills forest reserve in Oyo State (viii) Sanga River forest reserve in Plateau State (ix) Anara forest reserve in Kaduna State (x) Zamfara forest reserve in Sokoto State.

17.4 MANAGEMENT OF THE FOREST In order to ensure the continuous supply of forest products, the following management techniques are important:

1. FOREST REGULATION: Laws made by government to prevent indiscriminate tapping of forest resources. The regulations in Nigeria may include prohibition of bush burning cutting down of timber trees except permitted, and encouraging people to plant trees etc.
2. SELECTIVE EXPLORATION: This is cutting or harvesting only mature trees that is about 20 – 25 years.
3. DEFORESTATION: This is cutting down of economic trees without replacement. It normally results in the reduction of humus content of soil, amount of rainfall in the area, wildlife population and water percolation rate. It also increases soil erosion, loss of soil nutrient and may lead to desertification.
4. REGENERATION: This is the process by which trees make provision for their lost by regenerating naturally that is, where conducive environment is provided for the growth and development of volunteer trees or artificially where the forest trees are established deliberately in a plantation.
5. AFFORESTATION: This is the process by which new seedlings are planted to replace the already harvested trees. This help to check desert encroachment, check erosion, increase water percolation, amount of rainfall, humus soil content, wildlife population, and also improves soil microorganisms.
6. TAUNGYA SYSTEM: This is a system whereby forest trees and food crops are planted together on the same piece of land. It is practiced where land is scarce, underpopulation in the area, unemployment and low standard of living. Farmer benefits by improving his standard of living, having fertile land for farming, providing adequate employment, and some forest products for farmer’s use e.g. firewood (fuel) and increase his knowledge in other areas of agriculture apart from food crop production. But, the foresters benefit when the weeds are controlled, the soil nutrient increased in legumes are cultivated and cost of establishing the forest serve is reduced.

18.0 FLORICULTURE Meaning: Floriculture is a branch of horticulture which deals with the study, cultivation, maintenance and growth of flowers while ornamentals are flowers, shrubs and trees used in the decoration of our environment.

18.1 IMPORTANCE OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS (1) For preparation of dyes (2) For perfume preparation (3) For ceremonial purposes (4) For landscaping the environment (5) For exterior decorations (6) For interior decorations e.g. making xmas trees (7) As a gift of love (8) Source of income to the growers (9) Source of research (10) Provide shade.

18.2 COMMON TYPES OF FLOWER Hibiscus, flame of the forest, Delonix, flamboyant, sunflower, rose flower, crotalaria, whistling pine, pride of barbados, morning glory, cassia etc.

18.3 METHODS OF CULTIVATING FLOWERS

1. The site chosen must be well drained, accessible and good water retentive.
2. Good planting materials must be selected.
3. Flowers can be grown through the nursery beds, direct sowing of cuttings or planting in nylon bags, flower pits or polythene bag.
4. If grown for commercial purposes, they are transplanted after 3-4 weeks.

18.4 MAINTENANCE OF FLOWERS

These include provision of shade especially the young seedlings, water to be supplied regularly especially in the morning or late in the evening, weeding, fertilizer application prunning of side branches or dead/old leaves and stem and fencing from animals like goats, sheep etc.

19.0 DISEASES OF CROPS Meaning: A disease is a departure from normal state of health presenting marke symptoms of outward visible signs. These symptoms may take the form of wilting dwarfing of plants, yellowing of the leaves (chlorosis), shrivelling of canopy (blight), forming red spots (rust) etc.

19.1 CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES Diseases are usually caused by: (a) Pathogenic activity or deficiency e.g fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes (b) Physiological factors – This is when inorganic salts, water and heat are either deficient or in excess. (c) Nutritional deficiency – This is caused by excess or low nutrient to the plant.

19.2 EFFECTS OF PLANT DISEASES (1) Reduce the yield (2) Reduce the crop quality (3) Reduce farmers’ income (4) Increase the cost of production (5) Lead to the death of the whole plant (6) Lead to retarded growth in plant.

19.3 SELECTED CROP DISEASES (a) Cereal crop diseases (i) Maize smut (fungus) (ii) Maize rust (fungus) (iii) Rice blast (fungus) (iv) Maize streak (virus). Mode of transmission – wind Symptoms – Maize smut (Grains turn into large mass of black spores), Maize rust (large brown circular pustules appear on the leaf surfaces), rice blast (spots on young leaves), Maize streak (chlorotic/streak parallel on the veins) Control – use of resistant varieties, use of fungicide, seed treatment before planting, use healthy seeds from spores, early planting (b) Leguminous crops diseases

(1) Tikka/cercospora leaf spot (fungus) (ii) Groundnut rosette (virus) (iii) Cowpea Mosaic (virus) (iv) root knot nematodes of cowpea (nematode) (v) Bacterial leaf spot of cowpea (bacterium) (vi) Damping off of cowpea (fungus). Mode of transmission: Tikka disease (Air), Groundnut * Rosette (Aphid), Cowpea Mosaic (Beetle/Aphid) leaf spot of cowpea (seed borne), Damping off (soil borne), Root knot of cowpea (soil borne) Symptoms – Tikka disease (leaf spotting followed by yel lowing), Groundnut rosette (stunted and chlorotic appearance), cowpea mosaic (mottling blotches), Root knot of cowpea (root gall), leaf spot of cowpea (Angular spots). Damping off of cowpea (rotting & death) Control – Early planting and close spacing, use resistant varieties, good cultural practices, use of insecticides against vector, use fungicide (against fungi), burn infected plant. (c) Beverage Crop Diseases (i) Blackpod of cocoa (fungus) (ii) Swollen shoot disease of cocoa (virus) (ii) Leaf rust of coffee (fungus) Transmission: Cocoa blackpod (infected planting materials), cocoa swollen shoot (mealybugs), coffee leaf rust (Air borne) Symptoms: Cocoa blackpod (Brown spores covered and finally rotten and black), cocoa swollen shoot (Chlorotic vein), leaf rust of coffee (Necrotic/dead spots) Control: Use resistant varieties, destroy infected plant, use fungicide (against fungi), use clean seed. (d) Tuber Crop Diseases (i) Leaf spot of yam (fungus) (ii) Cassava mosaic (virus) (ii) Cassava bacterial blight (bacterium) (iv) Yam dry rot (nematode). Transmission: Yam leaf spot (seed borne), cassava mosaic (whitefly), cassava bacterial blight (water), yam rot (eelworm/fungal infection) Symptoms: Yam leaf spot (Dead spots on the leaves), cassava mosaic (distortion of leaves) cassava bacterial blight (wilting or dead leaves), yam dry rot (soft tuber). Control: Spray fungicide (against yam leaf spot), use clean seeds, growing resistant varieties, early planting or adopt crop rotation. (e) Fibre Crop Diseases

Black arm of cotton (ii) Boll of cotton (iii) Leaf curl of cotton. Transmission: Black arm of cotton (Bacterium), Boll rot (soil borne nematode), leaf curl of cotton (virus) Symptoms: Black arm (Augular spots on leaves/dead branches), Boll rot (Rottening of bolls), leaf curl (dwarfted/ curled leaves). Control: Growing resistant varieties, adopting crop rotation, use nemagon against soil borne nematode, seed dressing, burn infected plants. (1) Vegetable Diseases (i) Root knot of tomato/okra (ii) Damping off of okra (iii) Mosaic of Okra (iv) Bacterial wilt of tomato (v) Leaf spot of tomato (vi) Powdery mildew of okra. Symptoms: Root knot (Galls in the roots), Damping off (early death of plants), Mosaic (Mosaic colours on the leaves), bacterial wilt (wilting of plants), leafspot (circular white patches on leaves), powdery mildew (spores on leaves and stem). Transmission: Root knot (soil borne), Damping off (fungus), Mosaic (virus), Bacterial wilt (Bacterium), leaf spot (Air borne), powdery mildew (Air borne). Control: Use resistant varieties, spray with fungicide/nematicide/soil sterilization, uproot and burn infected plants, practice crop rotation. (g) Stored Produce Diseases (1) Mould (fungus). Transmission: By exposing the stored produce to some dampness. Symptoms: Black mould development on seeds and fruits, decay of seeds, sour tastes of produce. Control: Water content of produce should be reduced to minimum before storage, spray with fungicide. 19.4 CROP PESTS Meaning: A pest is an organism which harms or causes damage to man, his animals, crops or possessions. The most common pests are: (1) Inserts (2) Birds (3) Rodents (4) Monkeys (5) Nematodes (6) Man.

19.5 IMPORTANT INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS

1. BITING AND CHEWING PESTS (a) Grasshoppers (Zonocerus variegatus) cause damages to crops like cassava, plantain, vegetables, maize, millet etc. by eating up a lot of the foliage, reduce the rate of photosynthesis, growth and crop yield, and may be controlled by hand picking or spraying with insecticide (Vetox 85/Aldrex 40).

(b) Cowpea leaf beetle (Ootheca mutabilis) affects cowpea and hereby reducing rate of photosynthesis and yield, and is controlled by dusting with lindane dust or Diazinon, or use resistant variety. (c) Termites: affect yams, timber, maize, sorghum, citrus, kola etc, by eating the roots or heart wood of growing plants, and can be controlled by killing the queen to stop the reproductive cycle, spray insecticide, burn the termitarium or do regular ploughing. (d) Army worm (Laphygma exempta/Spodoptera lithoralis) affects grasses, maize, rice, cassava etc, by eating up their leaves thereby retard their growths, yield, and photosynthetic rate control by spraying with DDT or hand pick. and howpea leafing with ind, and’n

(2) PIERCING AND SUCKING PESTS (a) Aphids: Cause damages to crops like groundnuts, kolanut, cowpea, maize, cocoa, rubber etc. by sucking their saps, produce honey dew which disturbs its photosynthesis ability, and also serves as a vector of viruses and are controlled by spraying with DDT or Rogor. (b) Cotton Stainer: (Dysdercus superstitious) affects okra, cotton, tomato, maize, yam etc. by destroying the cotton seeds, stain the lint, distorts leaf and transmit virus, and. can be controlled by spraying with insecticide (DDTIALDRIN). (c) Mealy Bugs: Attack cocoa, citrus, rubber, tobacco, cowpea, cassava, pineapple – etc. by reducing their yields, spreads the virus and are controlled by using resistant crop varieties, spray with DDT/dip in Malathion. (d) Mirid/Capsid: They are two – Shlbergella singularis (brown cocoa mirid) and Distantiella theobroma (the black cocoa mirid), and attacks cocoa and kolanut by injecting toxic saliva into the plants leading to the death of young tissue, reducing yield or causes serious die-back and are controlled by properly performing weeding and shading of the crops, or by using gammalin thoroughly.

(3) BORING PESTS (a) Stem Borers: There are three types – Coniesta igrefusalis, Busseola fusca, and Sesamia calamistis. Attack maize, Sugarcane, sorghum, rice etc. It can reduce the grain to powder, reduce yield or causes stem lodging. It is controlled by spraying with DDT, time the planting or remove infected plant. (b) Weevil (Callosobruchus maculatus) affects crops like maize, rice, sorghum, cowpeas, peas, yam products, cassava flour, groundnuts etc. thereby reducing the market value of crops, the quantity of stored produce or viability of planting materials and is controlled by using fumigant, store in air-tight containers, use dry hot pepper etc. (c) Yam beetle: Affect yam tubers by boring holes, reducing yield or market value of yams. It is controlled by dusting seed yam with Aldrin dust. (d) Leaf Beetle: Affects peppers, garden egg, tomatoes and amaranthus thereby reducing leaf or total yield. It is controlled by handpicking, use insecticide, use parasite or resistant varieties

(4) EFFECTS OF BIRDS: Attacks rice, sorghum and millet by reducing the yield or cause crop failure and are controlled by using scarecrows or early harvesting.

(5) EFFECTS OF RODENTS: These are mammalian pests like rat, monkey, grasscutters, bat, squirrels etc. that attack young oil palm trees, vegetables, yam, cassava, nice, banana, sugarcane etc. thereby reducing germination, make fruits unattractive and increase the cost of production.

19.6 SIDE EFFECTS OF THE VARIOUS PREVENTIVE AND CONTROL METHODS OF DISEASES AND PESTS OF CROPS Chemical Method: (1) Some of the chemicals are toxic to man and other animals (2) They cause environmental pollution (3) Some beneficial organisms like butterfly and earthworm are destroyed (4) Pests and diseases may be resistant to chemicals (5) Expensive to procure. Biological Method: (1) When their preys have been eliminated, they may attack the cultivated crops (2) The predators activities may lead to serious biological dis-equilibrium in the ecosystem. Cultural Method (1) Bad tillage encourages erosion (2) Bush burning lead to distruction of soil structure, texture and killing of soil organisms (3) Clean clearing and regular weeding lead to erosion

20.0 COMMON FARM WEEDS Meaning: A weed is defined as a plant found growing in an unwanted place.

20.1 TYPES OF WEEDS (1) Wire grass (Sporonbulus pyramidalis), (2) Siam weed (Chromolina odorantum) (3) Blue feather (Commelina nudiflora), (4) Yellow feather (Commelina legosiensis) (5) Bush Marigold (Aspilia africana), (6) Stubborn grass (Eleusine Indica) (7) Pig weed (Boerhevia diffusa) (8) Tridax (Tridax procumbens) (9) Emilia weed (Emilia sonchifolia) (10) Sida weed (Sida acuta) (11) Goat weed (Agerantum conyzoides) (12) Aspilia (Aspilia africana)

20.2 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WEEDS (1) Reduce the size of farmland (2) Acts as host for cenam plant diseases or pests (3) Increase the cost of production (4) Reduces the income of farmers (5) It competes with plants for space. light, nutrients and water (6) Some are toxic to animals (7) Difficult to control (8) Reduce the quality of cultivated crops.

20.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS (1) They produce large quantity of seeds (2) Can survive without fertilizer (3) The seeds have long period of dormancy (4) They can be propagated by seeds or vegetative (5) They grow rapidly within very short period (6) They are not usually destroyed by trampling.

20.4 METHOD OF DISPERSAL These includes: (i) Wind e.g. Tridax procumbens, goat weed (ii) Water e.g grasses (ii) Animals e.g. pig weed (iv) Explosive mechanism e.g. desmodium, centrosema, pueraria.

20.5 CONTROL OF WEEDS (1) Mechanical and cultural methods – Handpulling, hoeing. cutlassing, burning of farmland, crop rotation, flooding. roguing, use of machinery etc. (ii) Biological method: (a) By using cover crops e.g. centrosema, pueraria to smother weeds (b) By feeding some insects and animals on certain weeds (c) Any planting crops like cocoyam, cassava to smother weeds. (iii) Chemical method: The use of weed killer known as herbicides. They are either selective herbicide (2,4-D, 2,4,5,-T) or non-selective herbicide (Paraquat, Atrazine smazine, linuron)

21.0 CROP IMPROVEMENT

Meaning: Crop improvement can be defined as the science of breeding and producing new varieties of crops with better qualities than their ancestors or parents.

21.1 AIMS OF CROP IMPROVEMENT (1) To produce crops with high yield (2) To produce crops with early maturity period (3) To produce crops that can adapt to climatic, soil and other environmental changes (4) To produce crops that are resistant to diseases, and pests (5) To produce crops that will meet the needs of consumers and growers (6) To develop uniformity of plants.

21.2 METHODS OF CROP IMPROVEMENT The following methods are used in crop improvement (1) introduction (ii) Selection (iii) Breeding (Hybridization). (A) Introduction: This is a process of bringing new crops from their natural countries to new countries. Advantages: (1) It increases the production of crops (2) It brings new crops to the area (3) It improves the standard of living of the people (4) It develops the local varieties (5) It creates crops which can adapt to both climatic and soil conditions. Disadvantages: (1) It may introduce new crop diseases and pest to the area (2) It may not perform in that new location (3) It may not be able to adapt to soil and climatic conditions (B) Selection: This is the artificial picking crops of desirable characteristics out of mixed population. Types of selection: These include (i) Individual/mass selection: picked on the basis of performance or merit (ii) Pureline selection: Picked only one plant with good traits (iii) Progeny selection: Picked on the basis of the performance of their offsprings (iv) Pedigree selection: Picked on the basis of the performance of their ancestors. Advantages: (1) Crops with desirable qualities are selected (2) Only the best naturally available crop is grown (3) Crops with bad traits are rejected (4) It can lead to the control of diseases and pests (5) Seeds with the best qualities are multiplied for distribution. Disadvantages: (1) Expensive (2) It is tedious and time consuming (3) It requires expertise which may be unavailable (4) Desirable traits may be eliminated.

(c) BREEDING: This is the development of plants by transferring heritable qualities from one plant to another through the fusion of male and female gametes. Types of Breeding: (1) In breeding: Crossing related species of crops. Advantages: (1) Pure lines are developed (2) Disease resistant crops are developed (3) It upgrades local cultivars. Disadvantages: (1) Continuous inbreeding results in weak hybrid (2) Other necessary traits are lacking since only a trait is emphasized. Cross Breeding: Unrelated crops are crossed. Advantages: (1) Upgrade local cultivars (2) Develop high quality crop breed (3) Disease and pest resistant crops are developed (4) Early maturity of plant (5) Crops that can withstand adverse weather and soil conditions are developed

21.3 MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE

FIRST LAW (LAW OF SEGREGATION OF GENES): States that “genes are responsible for the development of the individual and that they are independently transmitted from one generation to another without undergoing any alteration”.

SECOND LAW (LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT): states that “each character behaves as separate unit and is inherited independently of any other character”.

21.4 METHODS OF IMPROVING CROP PRODUCTIVITY (1) Practice good soil tillage system (2) Planting at the right time (3) Effective control of diseases and pests (4) Good coil conservation e.g. control of erosion, avoidance of burning and good manuring (5) Practice better methods of preservation, storage and transportation of crops (6) Good cultural methods.

SECTION E: ANIMAL SCIENCE

22.0 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS Anatomy is the branch of agricultural biology that deals with the study of the form and structure of the body, while physiology is another branch that studies or deals with the study of the functions of the various parts of the body. Some of the systems which maintain the animal body include: (i) Excretory system (ii) Digestive system (iii) Circulatory system (iv) Nervous system (v) Respiratory system (vi) Reproductive system (vii) Endocrine system.

22.1 EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Excretion is the process by which living things pass out waste products which are either liquid or gaseous while Egestion is the process by which solid waste products which may not have really gone into the system are passed out. The egested product in animals is known as faeces and is passed out through the anus (rectum). The excretory organs and their products are skin (sweat), liver (bile) kidney (urine) and lungs (CO 2 ).

22.2 THE SKIN STRUCTURE: The skin covers the outer surfaces of all animals. It consists of two sections: the outer epidermis and inner dermis. The epidermis consists of three layers: cornified laver Coutem epidermiso cornified layer (outermost, flat and scaly, dead cells). granular layer (active division of cells takes place here) and malpighian layer (contains melanin, responsible for skin colour, and keratin responsible for the toughness of the skin like strong nails, feather, beaks, hooves etc). The dermis is a true skin, consists of hairs, feathers and scales which is enclosed in papillary layer while the recticulary layer are nerve cells sebaceous gland, hair follicle etc. Functions: (1) Body protection (2) Secretion of hormones (3) Excretory organ (4) Sensitivity (5) Production of vitamin D (6) Regulating of body temperature (7) Storage of fat (8). Production of milk in females.

FEATHERS

Structure: They are epidermal structures which cover the entire body surface of the birds. They are said to evolve from scales. Types: (1) Convert (2) Quill (3) Down (4) Filoplume. Functions: (1) For flight (2) As insulator (3) For protection (4) Beautify the birds. (5) As industrial materials e.g. for stuffing pillows, mattresses and birde for bad menton.

HAIR

Structure: This consists of the epidermis, inner layer of cells (medulla) and outer cortex. The best and finest hair is found in merino sheep, and hair toughness and colour are determined by keratin and melanin respectively. Functions: (1) For making items like carpets, socks, sweaters, blankets, suitings etc. (2) Mohair from Angora goat for making artificial furs, wigs, car upholstery etc.

HOOVES

It is found in ungulate animals like cattle, sheep, goat, horse etc. and is absent in pigs, rabbits and birds. Functions: (1) Protection of the animal limbs (2) Decay to form manure (3) Manufacturing of gum, glues, cutlery handles etc HORN

It is found in certain animals e.g. cattle, goat (male and female), sheep (only male), and is absent in horse, rabbit and pig. Functions: (1) For dearating (2) As a drinking cup (3) Preparation of gum, gelatin glue and buttons etc. Removal Of Horns: This is called dehorning. They are removed chemically by applying concentrated caustic soda on the horn-bud. Problems Of Horns: (1) The life of the herdsman may be endangered (2) Some vices like fighting decrease the quality of the coat (3) It reduces the space and economic qualities of the animals.

BEAK This is an epidermal tissue, found in birds. Functions: (1) For picking up grains (2) For preening (3) For cracking of eggs during hatching.

PROBLEMS OF BEAK: (1) Used for vices like fighting, egg eating, and cannibalism may occur.

REMOVAL OF BEAK: The process is called debeaking and is done by cutting, of the curved end of the beak with a sharp knife and dipping the beak into the mash (feed) of the bird.

NAIL

This is found at the digits of birds. This is used to dig and look for worms in the ground. Nails encourage vices like fighting or cause injuries on the poultry man, and is removed by a process called

DESPURING. 22.3 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM This includes all the organs and tissues associated with the breaking down or digestion of food in the body. These are teeth or beak, tongue, the alimentary canal or digestive tract and all the associated gland, secretory enzymes and other body fluids. Farm animals are grouped into two main classes based on the nature of their alimentary canal or digestive tract. These are: (a) Monogastric (Non-Ruminant) Animals: These are animals which possess only one stomach and do not chew the cud e.g. pig, rabbit, poultry bird. (b) Polygastric (Ruminant) Animals: These are animals which possess complex stomach and chew the cud e.g. cattle, sheep, goat, horse, donkey, deer etc.

DIGESTION IN MONOGASTRICS

Digestive Tract of Pig

The non-ruminant animals feed, and this feed is mixed with saliva, rolled into a ball form or bolus before swallowing. During the stay of food in the mouth, it reacts with ptyalin that converts starch into maltose. The feed is passed to the stomach. Enzymes act on it and are converted to other end products. The feed now passes on to the duodenum where some enzymes acted on the feed before being moved to the small intestine where they are absorbed, and undigested food are passed out through the anus as faeces.

DIGESTION IN RUMINANTS

Digestive tract of Ruminant (e.g. Cattle)

The ruminants have the capacity to digest cellulose, feed on grasses and hurriedly chew before swallowing. The grasses pass from the mouth into the rumen through oesophagus – where micro-organism (bacteria) will act on the grass and digest it to form amino acid. The feed is passed to the reticulum from where it goes back to the mouth by a process called anti-peristaltic movement for chewing again. At this stage, the ruminant is said to be chewing its cud. The food is then chewed into a semi-liquid form which is now swallowed in bits and moves into the omasum and abomasum where absorption takes place. The undigested food is now passed out as dungs through the anus.

DIGESTION IN FOWL (BIRD)

The Birds are also monogastric animals with simple stomach. There is no teeth, but it makes use of a beak to pick up grains one after the other. The tongue aids in swallowing the food into the crop via oesophagus. The fermented food then leaves here through the oesophagus into the proventriculus (stomach) and digestive enzymes act on the food. The food then moves into the gizzard where it is marticated and churned. From here, food enters into the duodenum, ileum and later the colon where digestion and absorption of food takes place Birds do not urinate therefore, their faeces are passed out with urine through the vent.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MONOGASTRICS AND RUMINANTS MONOGASTRICS RUMINANTS

1. Have simple one Have complex four chambered stomach
2. They cannot digest cellulose because the necessary microbes are absent. Have complex four chambered stomach They can digest cellulose due to the presence of the necessary microbes.
3. The feed mostly on concentrates
4. They cannot synthesize their proteins; supplementary feed is required.
5. The cost of feeding is too high. They consume mostly roughages like grasses and legumes. They can synthesize The cost of feeding is very low.

22.4 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM This system is concerned with the transportation of certain blood substances round the body of the animal. It includes the heart, blood, blood vessels such as arteries, veins, and capillaries. (a) Heart – This is located in the pericardiac region of the thoracic cavity and is made up of muscles called the cardiac muscles. The space between the heart and the thoracic cavity is filled with pericardiac fluid which helps to prevent friction during heart beating. The working system of the heart is known as heartbeat, during which time blood is being pumped out e.g. Birds (190 heartbeats), Rat (200). rabbit (100), elephant (12) per minute. (b) Blood: This is a fluid tissue that consists of the liquid part called PLASMA (fibrinogen, prothrombin, food substances, hormones, water, gases like oxygen a waste products etc.), blood cells or corpuscles white blood cells (leucocytes (erythrocytes) and blood platelets without protein is called SERUM. Function of Blood: Blood performs two major functions; transport and defence: Transport: (1) Oxygen carrier (2) Distribution of heat (3) Transportation of digested food materials (4) Transporta tion of waste products (5) Transportation of hormones to the target organs. Defence: (1) For maintenance of water level (2) For protection against pathogen (3) Helps in clotting of blood.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTERIES, VEINS & CAPILLARIES Artery Capillary Vein

1. Carries blood away from heart
2. Thick wall of muscle and elastic fibres
3. Links arteries to veins
4. Wall is one cell thick
5. Carries blood back to the heart
6. Fairly thick wall containing some elastic fibres
7. Valves present only where arteries leave the heart
8. Blood flows in pulses
9. Blood is at high pressure
10. Blood is bright red and contains oxygen (except pulmonary artery)
11. No valves
12. Blood flows steadily
13. Blood pressure changes
14. Blood is losing oxygen and gaining carbon (iv) oxide (except in lung’s capillaries)
15. Valves present in long veins of the arms and legs
16. Blood flows steadily
17. Blood is at low pressure
18. Blood is dull red and contains very little oxygen (except in pulmonary vein).

22.5 NERVOUS SYSTEM This is the system concerned with the ability of the animal to respond to changes in the environment. It includes organs like the brain and spinal cord. However, the nervous system of mammals is composed of the following: (i) Central nervous system – consists of the brain and spinal cord. They help in coordinating the activities in both internal and external environment. (ii) Peripheral nervous system – consists of cranial nerves, spinal nerves and the autonomic nervous systems. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. The autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. One can increase action and the other decrease it. They are therefore said to be antagonistic in function.

THE BRAIN

This is enclosed in a bony case called cranium and is divided into forebrain, midbrain and the hind brain.

The Forebrain consists of the olfactory lobes, responsible for smell, and the cerebrum responds to intelligence. memory, imagination, voluntary actions etc. The Midbrain consists of the optic lobe that controls sight The Hindbrain consists of the cerebellum for body equilibrium and muscular control. The pons varolli helps to receive impulse from the midbrain into the hindbrain and back while the medulla oblongata is for simple reflex actions like sneezing, coughing, digestive tract movement etc.

THE SPINAL CORD

This begins from the end of the medulla oblongata passing through the vertebra column and ends at the caudal vertebra. The superficial white matter covers the inner grey matter to form an H – shape. The spinal cord controls all involuntary and reflex actions, and also works with the brain by transmitting and receiving impulses from it. (A) A NEURONE

A neurone is divided into two parts – The cell body and the axon. The cell body consists of the cytoplasm. Each cytoplasm has nucleus, mitochrondrion, Nssi’s granules and other organelles. The axon consists of a fluid called AXOPLASM and on the surface are myelin sheath, Schwann body, neurilemma. There are 3 major types – SENSORY OR AFFERENT NEURONE (attached to sense organs like eye, ear, skin, nose and tongue). MOTOR OR EFFERENT NEURONE (attached to the muscle fibres and glands) and INTERMEDIATE OR RELAY NEURONE (attached to the brain and spinal cord). The neurones transmit impulse within each other but not connected together. 22.6 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM This includes all the organs and tissues associated with the exchange of gas between the animal and its environment leading to the release of energy. There are two types: If it takes place in the presence of oxygen, it is called AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Glucose Oxygen Carbon(iv) Water oxide

But if it takes place in the absence of oxygen, it is referred to as ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION. It releases lactic acid and energy in animals but in plants, the end products are alcohol, carbon(iv)oxide and energy. Glucose Alcohol Carbon(iv) oxide

Breathing is quite different from respiration, respiration is the air flow from the nostrils to the pharynx to the larynx, from there to the bronchus, alveolus and later the lung. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INHALATION AND EXHALATION

Breathing in, inspiration or inhalation Breathing out, exhalation or expiration

1. External intercostal muscles
2. Internal intercostal muscles
3. Rib cage
4. Diaphragm muscles
5. Diaphragm
6. Volume of thorax
7. Pressure of air in thorax
8. Air

Contract

Relax

Raised Contract Lowered Increases Decreases Enter lungs

Relax

Contract

Lowered Relax Raised Decreases Increases Leaves lungs

22.7 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

These consist of male and female systems.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

This is made up of the primary sexual character (testes) and secondary sexual characters (scrotum, cowpers gland, prostate gland, seminal vessicle, urethra, penis, vas deferens and spermatic duct.

Functions of the various parts of Male Reproductive System

(i) Testes – located within the scrotum, stimulated by testosterone and secretes spermatozoa. Removal of testes is called CASTRATION. (ii) Scrotum – houses the testes (iii) Vas deferens – conducts the sperm from the epididymis to the neck of the urethra and removal of this is called VASECTOMY. (iv) Epididymis – sperm is stored temporarily here. (v) Seminal vesicle – Feed spermatozoa with rich food substances before fertilization. (vi) Prostate gland – inhibits urine formation during copulation and ejaculation. (vii) Cowper’s gland – reduce the acidity of the spermatozoa. (viii) Semen – Mixture of 75% seminal fluids and 25% spermatozoa. (ix) Urethra – for transportation of either urine or semen. (x) Penis – Organ for introducing the spermatozoa into vagina but in poultry, papillae is used.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

This consists of the primary sexual character (ovary) and secondary sexual characters like infundibulum, oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina, clitoris and vulva.

Functions of the various parts of female reproductive System

Vagina Reproductive System in rabbit

(1) Ovary – stimulated by oestrogen, secretes ovule or egg and occurs during ovulation (2) Infundibulum – also known as fallopian funnel and it receives the egg when released during ovulation (3) Oviduct – also known as fallopian tube. It is the point where fertilization occurs (4) Uterus – It is a place where implantation occurs, stimulated by progesterone hormone (5) Cervix – Helps to prevent foreign bodies from entering the womb (6) Vagina – Receives the penis and is, where spermatozoa is deposited (7) Clitoris – Sensitive, erotic and brings the female into mating mood (8) Vulva – Known as labia majora, becomes red, turgid and mucus will be discharged during heat.

PROCESS OF EGG FORMATION IN POULTRY

The hen when stimulated by the hormone oestrogen secretes egg or ovum. The ovum moves into the infundibulum then to the oviduct where fertilization occurs. The egg will proceed down into the magnum and stays there for about three hours. This is where the albumen (egg white) is deposited on the egg and helps in providing food and protection to the embryo. It moves to isthmus and stays for about 11 hours where the two lighter shell membranes are deposited on the egg. The shape is also formed before proceeding to uterus or shell gland where it remains for 18-21 hours. The shell is deposited here and stays in the vagina for only 10 minutes until it is finally laid out through the vent or cloaca.

22.8 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM This helps in the secretion of hormones in the body of the animal. They are also known as the ductless glands, e.g. reproductive hormones. (A) Male Reproductive Hormones

(i) Androgen (Testosterone) (a) Stimulated by the interstitial cell stimulating hormone (b) Brings about puberty in male animal (c) Increases sexual urge in male animals (d) Essential for secretion of spermatozoa (e) Helps in the development of the secondary sexual character (f) Maintain right conditions for sperm formation. (B) Female Reproductive Hormones (1) Oestrogen/Estrogen (a) Secreted by the graffian follicle (b) Brings about puberty in female animals (b) Helps in the secretion of ova (c) Brings about ovulation and heat period (d) Essential for the development of the secondary sexual characters (e) Helps in the development of the mammary gland (f) Helps in producing mucus secretions in female tract. (2) Progesterone (a) Helps to set the uterus for implantaton (b) Inhibits oestrus and ovulation activities (c) Maintain elopment of new follicles pregnancy (d) Inhibit development of new follicles (e) Essential for the implantation of the embryos in the uterus. (3) Placenta Progesterone (a) Encourages the development of the foetus (b) Allows for continuation of pregnancy (c) Allows for the enlargement of the womb (d) for the development of the alveoli in the mammary gland (e) Prevents other embryos from being implanted after the first implantation. (4) Placenta Oestrogen (a) Encourages the development and enlargement of the milk cistern (b) Encourages the contraction of the womb thereby keeping the foetus in a proper shape. (5) Oxytocin (a) Brings about uterine contraction (b) Encourages labour (c) Encourages parturition (d) Encourages the letting down of milk. (6) Prolactin (a) Encourages lactation (b) Prolong the lactation period. (7) Relaxin (a) Helps in relaxation of the pelvic ligament and cartilage during parturition (b) It allows for the free and flexible passage of the foetus during parturition.

23.0 ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS

23.1 OESTRUS: This is the time of sexual receptivity in females or period when they are willing to mate with the male. It is also known as heat period and it varies from one animal to another e.g. Cow – 5-24 hours Sow – 40 – 48 hours Ene – 35 – 36 hours Doe(goat) – 40-50 hours Doe(rabbit) 10-18 Mare – 4 – 10 days. Signs of Heat/Oestrus Period (1) Abnormal noise (2) Viscous secretion from the vagina (3) The vulva becomes red and swollen (4) Loss of appetite (5) Increase in body temperature (6) Frequent urination (7) Lifting up of the tail (8) Animal becomes restless (9) Ridden on other animals (10) Keeping away from other animals.

23.2 OESTRUS CYCLE: This is the period from the beginning of one oestrus/heat period to the beginning of another. It is controlled by oestrogen hormone. The length of oestrus cycle varies from one cycle to another e.g. Cow – 21 days Ewe – 17 – 21 days Doe (goat) 17-21 days Sow – 14-28 days Mare – 21 – 24 days Doe (rabbit) 7 – 10 days However, the oestrus cycle reappear, and varies from one animal to another e.g Cow 6 – 7 weeks after calving Ewe – 8-11 days after kambing Doe (goat) 8 – 10 days after kidding Sow – 3 – 6 days after farrowing Mare – 8 – 11 days after foaling Doe (rabbit) – 3 – 5 days after kidding

23.3 MATING: This is also called COITUS or COPULATION and is the act in which the penis of the male is inserted into the vagina of the female leading to ejaculation of the spermatozoa. There are two types of mating. Natural Mating: This is the process of allowing the male animal to mount the female animal on heat without any assistance. Examples are: (i) Pen mating – very few males kept with limited number of females (ii) Flock mating – Both males and females move together and mate freely (iii) Stud mating – males are taken to females on heat for mating. Artificial Mating: This is also known as artificial insemination and this does not require the physical meeting of the male and female animals and usually involves artificial method of introducing sperm into the vagina of the female animal by artificial means.

The semen which is collected by artificial means is stored in a refrigerator under liquid nitrogen at a temperature of about 196°C. Advantages: (1) The maintenance cost is reduced (2) It reduces the spread of veneral diseases (3) It is cheaper to import semen than the male animal (4) The semen of good desirable trait can be used to serve many animals (5) The semens of animal can still be used even after the death of the animal. Disadvantages: (1) It requires highly trained personnel which are often not available (2) It may not be possible to identify animals that are on heat (3) The erratic electricity supply may be too low to store the semen.

23.4 FERTILIZATION: This is the fusion of the male and female gametes to form a zygote. It usually occurs in the oviduct or fallopian tube in the female tract.

23.5 OVULATION: This is the release of the egg (ovum) from the ovary into the fallopian tube. It occurs when the graffian follicle ruptures. It is also under the influence of the pituitary gland hormone (inteinizing hormone) or oestrogen and takes place during oestrus/heat period. This varies from one animal to another e.g. Rabbit – instantly Sow – 24 – 36 hours Ewe – 20 – 24 hours Cow – 10 – 14 hours Dog – 26 hours

23.6 IMPLANTATION: This is the attachment of the embryo to the wall of the uterus at the placenta. The implanted embryo is called a foetus and is under the influence of the hormone ‘progesterone’. The time of implantation varies from one animal to another e.g. Cow – 30 days after ovulation Doe(rabbit) – 5 days after ovulation Doe (goat) – 15 days after ovulation Ewe – 15 days after ovulation Sow. 15 days after ovulation Nare – 70 days after ovulation

23.7 GESTATION PERIOD: This is the interval between the time of fertilization of the ovum to the time of parturition or delivery of the young ones. The period of pregnancy varies from one animal to another e.g. Cow – 283 – 3050 days Goat (Doe/Nanny) – 150 – 155 days Ewe – 145 – 155 days Sow – 114 – 116 days Rabbit (Doe) – 31 days Mare – 336 days

23.8 PARTURITION: This is the act of giving birth in farm animals. It is under the influence of hormones like placental oestrogen, oxytocin, and relaxin. Parturition terms varies with species of farm animals. Species Name of female Name of parturition

Name of young ones

Cattle = Calving Sheep = lambing Goat = kidding Pig = farrowing Horse = foaling Rabbit = kindling

Cow = calf Ewe = lamb Nanny (doe) = kid Sow = piglet Mare = foel Doe = litter

Signs of Parturition

(1) Enlargement of mammary gland (ii) Secretion of milky substances (iii) Mucus discharge from vulva (v) Frequent urination (vi) Animal becomes restless and loss of appetite.

23.9 LACTATION: This is the release of milk from the udder of the female animal and is under the influence of the hormone oxytocin and prolactin.

23.10 COLOSTRUM: This is the first milk produced by female animals after parturition that is rich in antibodies, proteins, vitamins and are fed to new born animals to serve immunity against any disease attack. It is highly digestible and helps in exercising the digestive system

23.11 WEANING: This is the separation of the young one from its mother after a period of suckling.

23.12 STRUCTURE OF MAMMARY GLAND: This is a large gland which is surrounded with skin and consists of large ducts which empty into a large gland cistern. It terminates with an alveoli where milk is secreted. The constriction of the alveoli leads to the letting down of milk. The number of glands varies with species e.g. Cow – 4. Goat (Nanny/Doe) – 2 Ewe – 2 Rabbit (Doe) – 2 lines of 12 – 14 Mare – 4 Sow – 2 lines of 12 – 14

24.0 LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT 24.1 CATTLE PRODUCTION

Terminologies

(1). Bull – adult male (2) Cow – adult female (3) Heifer – Young female without offspring (4) Bullock – castrated male cattle (5) Spayed – castrated female cattle (6) Calf – newly born young one (7) Herd – a group of cattle (8) Servicing – Act of mating in cattle (9) Calving – Act of giving birth in cattle (10) Veal – meat of cattle (young); Beef – meat of cattle (adult) (11) Dairy cattle – cows kept for milk production (12) Beef cattle – cattle kept for meat production only (13) Stud bull – Bull used for breeding (14) Horned – cattle with horn (15) Polled – cattle without horn (16) Humped – cattle with hump (17) Humpless – cattle without hump (18) Vealers – calves under 3 months old (19) Yearling – cattle between 12 and 24 months (20) Two year olds – cattle between 24 and 36 months.

24.2 BREEDS OF CATTLE Classification based on their uses: These includes: (a) Dairy cattle – cattle for milk production only e.g. White Fulani, Shuwa Arab, Jersey, Holstein/Friesian, Red poll, Kerry, Dexter, Ayrshire Guerusey, South devon etc. (b) Beef cattle – cattle for meat production only eg. Sokoto Gudali, red bororo, N’dama, Keteku (Borgu), Brown Swiss, kuri etc. (c) Dual (All) Purpose Cattle – cattle reared for both meat and milk production e.g Muturu, Shuwa, Azawal, Biu.

Classification According to Hump

This is divided into two: Humped cattle: These are cattle with hump on the back e.g. Bunaji, Rahaji, Sokoto Gudali etc. Humpless cattle: These are cattle without hump on their back e.g the West African dwarf, N’dama.

24.3 CATTLE MANAGEMENT Housing: (1) The type of housing provided depends on the system of management being practised, the sex or age of the cattle (2) Cattle are usually kept in sheds (3) The type of building depends on whether the cattle is being managed indoors or outdoors (4) Each cattle should be given adequate space e.g milking cows (1.03m-1.52m), bulls (16.7m2 within house and 33.5-37.2m2), calves (1.83 x 1.22m for individual pens and 2.8m for 3 months and above) (5) Well ventilated to be provided for milking cows (6) The floor should be concreted (7) Cattle can also be kept in ranches or rangeland (8) Fence and shade to be provided. Feeding: (1) Calves are fed on milk and milk substitutes before weaning (2) At weaning, the calf is allowed to graze freely with its mother (3) Cattle are fed a mixture of grasses, legumes and weeds (4) Cattle are also fed with concentrates like groundnut cake, fish meal, blood meal etc. (5) Regular supply of water is essential especially for the young and lactating animals (6) Rotational grazing is recommended in small holder areas.

24.4 GOAT PRODUCTION

Terminologies

(1) Bully – adult male goat (2) Nanny (doe) – adult female goat (3) Kid – Young goat (4) Kidding – system of delivery (5) Wether – castrated male goat (6) Flock – group of goats (7) Chevon – goat meat (8) Serving – system of mating (9) Suckling – female with its offspring (10) Castrate – A castrated male goat.

24.5 BREEDS The breeds found in the tropics are: (1) West African dwarf goat (2) Hejazi of Arabic & Moxoto of Pernambuco (3) Cutch (4) Sapel (5) Jumnapari and the Surti (6) Sokoto red (1) Kano brown (8) Bauchi (9) Sahel/ Fulani (10) Bantu. The temperate breeds include: (1) Maradi (2) Toygenburg (3) American lamancha (4) British saanen (5) Angora (6) Kashmeri (7) Alphine (8) Anglo-Nubian.

24.6 GOAT MANAGEMENT Housing: (1) The best form of rearing is by tethering (2) Its house should be built of concrete, iron made roof, and concrete floor (3) The gate is made of iron bars and barbed wires (4) The fence must be high and made of blocks (5) The beddings made of straw/wood shavings should be provided (6) The goats should he 77.2m to walk (7) Hay/silage rack to be provided.

Feeding: (1) They are herbivores (2) They may be given fodder feeds like yam peelings, cassava, groundnut etc. (3) They can browse on plant stems (4) During dry season, hay and silage are provided (5) Regular water supply is required (6) Grasses and legumes may also be served.

24.7 PIG PRODUCTION

Terminologies

(1) Boar – adult male pig (2) Sow – adult female pig (3) Farrowing – system of parturition in pigs (4) Piglet – the young pig. (5) Gilt – mature female pig (6) Barrow-castrated male pig (7) In-sow – pregnant sow (8) Dry Sow-sow in which lactation has stopped. (9) Weaners – young pigs that have just stopped sucking (10) Fatteners – old pigs reared for the market (11) Pon – pig meat (12) Bacon – salted pig meat (13) Lard – pig meat with fat.

24.8 BREEDS (1) Large white (2) Landrace (3) Duroc Jersey (4) Large black (5) Hampshire (6) Poland china (7) Chester white (8) Berkshire (9) Essex saddle back (10) Farmsworth (11) Welsh (12) West African dwarf.

24.9 PIG MANAGEMENT Housing: (1) The pig pens are divided into paddocks (2) The s made of blocks, iron sheet roof and concrete floor (3) Each Jock must be sloppy with water/dip for cooling the body temperature (4) The gate should be made of iron bars The house must be well ventilated (6) The male should kept separate from the female (7) The house should owing crates, rail guards, beddings, feeding and water troughs. Feeding: (1) They are voracious in appetite (2) They are fed on roughages like yam, cassava, maize etc. (3) Concentrates like fish meal, bone meal, blood meal etc. are also provided (4) Vegetables may also be supplied (5) The piglet is given creep feeding from about 2 weeks after farrowing (6) Weaners and breeders’ mash are provided.

24.10 POULTRY PRODUCTION

Terminologies

(1) Cock – male fowl above one year (2) Hen – female fowl above one year (3) Cockerel male fowl below one year (4) Pullet – female fowl below one year (5) Chicks – A young fowl either male or female (6) Clutch – group of chicks (7) Grower – fowl between 7-19 weeks old (8) Layer – female fowl above 20 weeks old (9) Chicken – meat of fowl (10) Broiler – A fowl reared for meat (11) Treading – Act of mating in fowl (12) Capon – castrated male fowl (13) Caponization – process of castration in fowl.

24.11 BREEDS They are classified on their; (a) Basis of utility: Light Breeds – They are small, early maturing and produce small, white shilled eggs and are less prone to broodiness e.g. Ancona, Andalusian, campine, leghorn, minorca etc. Heavy Breeds – They are big, late maturing and produce coloured eggs (brown/tinted) e.g. cochin, Langshan, Cornish, Sussex, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, Jersey Giant, Dorking, New hampshire, Plymouth rock etc. (b) Production EGG PRODUCERS e.g. white and brown leghorn MEAT PRODUCERS e.g. cornish, sussex, cochin DUAL PURPOSES [MEAT & EGG PRODUCERS) e.g Rhode Island red, New Hampshire, Plymouth rock etc.

24.12 POULTRY MANAGEMENT Birds are kept under three major management systems. They are: Intensive System: Birds are confined into a particular housing unit and are provided with adequate feed, water and medication. Examples are deep litter system and battery cage system. Advantages: (1) Birds conserve their energy because they are confined (2) Culling is very easy to carry out (3) Labour can be conserved (4) Adequate uses of land (5) Large number of birds can be managed. Disadvantages: (1) The bird practice cannibalism and egg pecking (2) High cost of feeding the birds (3) Spread of diseases and pests is very rapid (4) The cost of construction may be high. Extensive System: Birds are allowed to search for food and water without any housing, feeding and management practices. Example is the free-range system.

Advantages: (1) Cost of production is reduced (2) Labour requirement is reduced (3) It can be practised on small land area (4) Birds have access to feed on grasses thereby deriving vitamins and minerals. Disadvantages: (1) Birds are exposed to climatic conditions (2) Eggs will be dirty and some may be lost (3) Birds are prone to losses through thieves, snake bites and disease attack (4) The growth rate is retarded (5) Egg production is very low. Semi Intensive: Birds are allowed to roam about a fenced area and return simply to the house at night. Example is the fold system. Advantages: (1) Fertile eggs are produced if males and females are kept together (2) Birds are provided with adequate feed and water (3) Birds have opportunity to exercise themselves (4) Cost of management is reduced (5) Labour requirement is reduced. Disadvantages: (1) High cost of feeding (2) Vices like fighting, egg eating and cannibalism may be rampant (3) Makes record keeping difficult (4) Vermins like thieves, snakes etc. are common (5) Renders eggs dirty. Feeding: (1) They are given mash, and it depends on the age and the purpose of keeping the birds e.g. chicks’ mash, growers’ mash, layers’ mash and fisher’s mash (2) Water must be supplied regularly (3) Occassional supply of vegetable is necessary e.g. Talinum triangulae. Hygiene In Poultry: (1) Visitors to the poultry house must use foot dip (2) Use disinfectant and insect repellant against disease and pest (3) Gather the poultry dropping in hygienic way (4) Regular cleaning of feeding and watering troughs (5) Vaccinate the birds (6) Regular deworming is necessary (7) Remove cobweb and all wet litter. Hygiene In Pigs: (1) Clean the feeding and watering troughs (2) The wallow is to be cleaned (3) Regular deworming 4) Vaccinate the pig (5) Remove cobweb (6) Regular dipping of the pigs against ectoparasites. Hygiene In Cattle: (1) Clean the shed always (2) Cull the sick animal (3) The faeces removed into a safe place (4) Clear cobweb and dust (5) Regular dipping. Hygiene In Goats: (1) The house should be cleaned and washed (2) Cull the sick animal (3) Regular cleaning of the feeding and watering troughs (4) Regular deworming (5) Vaccinate the goat.

24.13 INCUBATION This is the process of preparing eggs for hatching by providing optimum temperature, relative humidity and ventilation for the proper development of the chicks.

TYPES OF INCUBATION

(a) Natural incubation: is when the bird sits on the eggs. (clutch) to provide the necessary temperature and relative humidity to hatch the eggs. (b) Artificial incubation: This is a process of using a machine – the incubator to hatch fertile eggs. The components of a standard incubator are thermometer, egg trays, water tray, hygrometer, heater, cabinet, turning device, counter, candler etc. Hatching: Eggs for domestic fowl takes 21 days to hatch and requires temperature of 37°C – 39°C and relative humidity of 55-75%. The egg shell will crack and immediately the alarm rings, the incubator is switched off and the chicks brought out. Candling: This is the process of determining fertile or unfertile eggs (dead embryo) and is carried out between 7th and 9th day of incubation. They are placed with the larger end up in a hole containing electric lamp of about 100 watts to illuminate the egg. Fertile eggs are observed to have web-like structures containing dark spots.

INCUBATION PERIOD

(i) Chicken – 20 – 21 days (ii) Turkey – 26 – 28 days (iii) Duck – 26 – 28 days (iv) Goose – 33 – 35 days (V) Guineafowl – 26-28 days (vi) Pigeon – 17 – 19 days (vii) Pheasant-21-24 days (Vili) Ostrich – 40 – 42 days

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